 1 LAOS HISTORY and 25 YEARS AFTER THE WAR
 2 Laos culture and ethnic makeup (Tribes)
 3 Vientiane
 4 Luang Prabang

\1 LAOS HISTORY and 25 YEARS AFTER THE WAR

Officially Lao People's Democratic Republic, republic (1992 est. pop. 4,113,000), 91,428 sq mi (236,800 sq km), SE Asia. A landlocked region, Laos is bordered by China on the north, by Vietnam on the east, by Cambodia on the south, and by Thailand and Myanmar on the west. The capital and largest city is Vientiane. The country is divided into 16 provinces.

Land and People In general, the Mekong River, most of which flows in a broad valley, forms the boundaries with Myanmar and Thailand. For two stretches, howeverone greater than 300 mi (480 km)the Mekong flows entirely through the territory of Laos. Except for the Mekong lowlands and three major plateaus, the terrain of Laos is rugged, mountainous, and heavily forested; jagged crests in the north tower over 9,000 ft (2,740 m). In addition to the capital, important cities include Savannaket, Pakse, and Louangphrabang (the former royal capital).

Laos, along with Vietnam and Cambodia, made up the former French colonial territory of Indochina. During nearly seventy years of comparatively indulgent and negligent French rule, the aristocracy acquired a veneer of French education but was undisturbed in its traditional semifeudal status. The country is mainly an agglomeration of rural dwellers who lead a life of bucolic simplicity. They are simple peasants and isolated tribal peoples scattered through a spoon-shaped, monsoon-swept expanse of lush, tropical valleys and jumbled mountains about the size of Kansas. Clustered in the lowlands of the Great Mekong River and its tributaries are the Buddhist Laos  charming and unassertive. They make up about half of the population and are the dominant people of the country. The other half of the population comprises a score of tribal groups living in the forested hills. All the people of Laos are called Laotians, but only the "superior" valley dwellers, who scorn the hillmen, are known as Laos. The thousands of valley Lao villages are huddles of thatch-roofed shacks on stilts flanked by rice fields and shaded by clumps of bamboo. The rural Laos live by ccultivating rice, fishing, raising chickens and growing tropical fruits. They make elegant silk and cotton textiles, basketry and Buddhist artifacts, with skills now slowly dying out. Lao men and women exert themselves during the rice-growing monsoon season, and take it easy during the dry-months. Dressed in colorful sarongs, they stage numerous festivals with dancing and games. Held in compounds of gilt-roofed temples. These fetes coincide with harvest cycle, or with Buddhist holy days and cremations. The Loas were made unaffressive and passive by the Buddhist emphasis on contemplation and fatalism, isolation from the rest of the world, lack of education (French policy was to keep them "unspoiled" ), and a history of conquest and invasion from which they learned to be passive. Neither Laos or the hill people have an aptitude for business. It is carried on their country, as in most of Southeast Asia, by Chinese and Indians. Each tribe has its own distinctive culture. Some practice "slash and burn" agriculture setting fire to all vegetation in a hillside plot, digging holes for seeds with sticks, reaping a pitifully thin harvest and moving on. But many weave highly sophisticated textiles and baskets, with bold and beautiful designs and colors. Among these mountain tribesmen are Hmong, who migrated to northern Laos from China in the last century. Before the U.S. entered the Vietnam War, they were slash and burn farmers living in isolated hamlets. Then, recruited by the CIA to fight the secret war in Laos, Hmong became some of Americas most loyal allies in Southeast Asia. With the U.S. pull out, Vietnam and Laos fell to the communists, and Hmong fled to refugee camps in Thailand and Malaysia. For many exodus ended in the United States. Today, half of the Hmong refugees live in California, mainly near Fresno. The lowlanders  the French before them  have consistently discriminated against, scorned and neglected the hill people. With divisions between lowlanders and hillmen and lingering regional loyalities, Laotians do not have much of a sense of national identity. The lack of communications hampers cohesion. Its natural resources are extremely meagre. Successive Laotian Governments composed of the traditional elite have made some progress in economic development, but they have done far too little to cope with the wants and stirrings among both lowlanders and hill peoples. Laos has been intermittently at war, and during the Vietnam war Lao territory was used as the supply route from North to South Vietnam which became known as the "Ho Chi Minh Trail."

Laos is one of the regions of SE Asia least touched by modern civilization. There are no railroads; roads and trails are limited; and use of the country's main communications artery, the Mekong River, is impeded by many falls and rapids. More than half of the people live along the Mekong and its tributaries and most are subsistence farmers.

About half the population is Lao, a people ethnically related to the Thai. Upland tribes include the many groups that constitute the Mountain Mon-Khmer, as well as the Hmong, the Meo, the Yao, and several Tibeto-Burman speaking peoples. There are also important minorities of Vietnamese and Chinese. A majority of Laotians are Theravada Buddhists; although the mountain peoples are generally animists, some have adopted Buddhism. Lao is the official language; French and English are also widely spoken.

Economy Laos is one of the world's poorest nations. Agriculture employs most of the Laotian workforce and accounts for about 60% of its gross domestic product. Rice is by far the chief crop; corn, sweet potatoes and vegetables are also grown. Commercial crops include coffee, tobacco, sugarcane, and cotton. Illegal opium and cannabis are also produced in a northwest region bordering Thailand and Myanmar known as the Golden Triangle. Fish from the rivers supplement the diet. Forests cover about two thirds of the country; teak is cut and lac is extracted, but poor transportation and the lack of industry limit production. Although tin is mined, mineral resources, which also include gypsum, gold, and gemstones, are largely undeveloped.

Laos also has a massive hydroelectric potential and, despite a relative lack of development, electricity is a prime export. The other principal exports of Laos are textiles, timber and wood products, tin, and coffee. Since most manufactured items have to be imported, however, there is a continuing foreign trade deficit. Leading trade partners are Thailand, Malaysia, nations in the former Soviet Union, Vietnam, and Japan. In an attempt to expand the nation's economy, a foreign investment law was passed in 1989.

History The Laotians are descendants of Thai tribes that were pushed southward from Yunnan, China, in the 13th century and gradually infiltrated the territory of the Khmer Empire. In the mid-14th century a powerful kingdom called Lan Xang was founded in Laos by Fa Ngoun (135373), who is also credited with the introduction of Theravada Buddhism and much of Khmer civilization into Laos. Lan Xang waged intermittent wars with the Khmer, Burmese, Vietnamese, and Thai, and by the 17th century it held sway over sections of Yunnan, China, of S Myanmar, of the Vietnamese and Cambodian plateaus, and large stretches of N Thailand. In 1707, however, internal dissensions brought about a split of Lan Xang into two kingdoms: Luang Prabang in upper (northern) Laos and Vientiane in lower (southern) Laos. During the next century the two states, constantly quarreling, were overrun by the armies of neighboring countries.

In the early 19th century Siam was dominant over the two Laotian kingdoms, although Siamese claims were disputed by Annam. After French explorations in the late 19th century Siam was forced (1893) to recognize a French protectorate over Laos, which was incorporated into the union of Indochina. During World War II, Laos was gradually occupied by the Japanese, who in 1945 persuaded the king of Luang Prabang to declare the country's independence.

In 1946 the French reestablished dominion over Laos, recognizing the king as constitutional monarch of the entire country. The French granted an increasing measure of self-government, and in 1949 Laos became a semiautonomous state within the French Union. In 1951, a communist Laotian nationalist movement, the Pathet Lao, was formed by Prince Souphanouvong in North Vietnam. In 1953, Pathet Lao guerrillas accompanied a Viet Minh invasion of Laos from Vietnam and established a government at Samneua in N Laos. That year Laos attained full sovereignty; admission into the United Nations came in 1955.

A New Nation's Struggles The new country faced immediate civil war as Pathet Lao forces, supported by the Viet Minh, made incursions into central Laos, soon occupying sizable portions of the country. Agreements reached at the Geneva Conference of 1954 provided for the withdrawal of foreign troops and the establishment of the Pathet Lao in two northern provinces. In 1957 an agreement was reached between the royal forces and the Pathet Lao, but in 1959 the coalition government collapsed and hostilities were renewed.

A succession of coups resulted (1960) in a three-way struggle for power among neutralist, rightist, and Communist forces. The Communist Pathet Lao rebels remained under the leadership of Prince Souphanouvong in the northern provinces. The right-wing government of Boun Oum, installed in Vientiane, was recognized by the United States and other Western countries and controlled the bulk of the royal Laotian army. The Soviet Union and its allies continued to recognize the deposed neutralist government of Souvanna Phouma, who had fled to neighboring Cambodia.

In May, 1961, with Pathet Lao and neutralist forces in control of about half the country, a cease-fire was arranged. A 14-nation conference convened in Geneva, producing (1962) another agreement providing for the neutrality of Laos under a unified government. A provisional coalition government, with all factions represented, was accordingly established under the premiership of Souvanna Phouma. Attempts to integrate the three military forces failed, however, and the Pathet Lao began moving against neutralist troops.

Open warfare resumed in 1963, and the Pathet Lao, bolstered by supplies and troops from North Vietnam, solidified control over most of N and E Laos. Disgruntled right-wing military leaders staged a coup in 1964 and attempted to force the resignation of Souvanna Phouma; the United States and the Soviet Union emphasized their support of the premier, however, and he remained in office with a right-wing neutralist government.

The Vietnam War and Communist Rule Pathet Lao guerrilla activity decreased after the start (1965) of U.S. bombings of North Vietnamese military bases and communications routes. The bombings also included attacks on what came to be known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail, a North Vietnamese supply route through E Laos. Communist pressure increased during 1969, and early in 1970 the Pathet Lao launched several major offensives. Early in 1971, South Vietnamese troops invaded Laotian territory in an unsuccessful attempt to cut the Ho Chi Minh trail. The attack drove the North Vietnamese deeper into Laos, and Laos became another battleground of the Vietnam War, with heavy U.S. aerial bombardments.

The United States extended enormous military and economic aid to the Laotian government and financed the use of Thai mercenary troops, whose numbers peaked to over 21,000 in 1972. The Pathet Lao, supported by North Vietnamese troops, scored major gains, consolidating their control over more than two thirds of Laotian territory (but over only one third of the population). Heavy fighting persisted until Feb., 1973, when a cease-fire was finally declared. A final agreement between the government and the Pathet Lao, concluded in Sept., 1973, provided for the formation of a coalition government under the premiership of Souvanna Phouma (inaugurated in April, 1974), the stationing of an equal number of government and Pathet Lao troops in the two capitals, and the withdrawal of all foreign troops and advisers.

After communist victories in Vietnam and Cambodia, the Pathet Lao took control of the country in 1975, abolished the monarchy, and made Laos a republic. Huge numbers of Laotians (many Hmong) fled to Thailand. Laos became increasingly dependent on Vietnam for military and economic assistance, and the two countries signed a 25-year treaty of friendship in 1977.

In the early 1990s Laos abandoned economic communism for capitalism, but the party retained tight political control and political dissent was harshly suppressed. Meanwhile, the nation pursued improved relations with such former enemies as China, Thailand, and the U.S. Kaysone Phomvihane, head of the Communist party, became president in 1991. He died the following year and Nouhak Phoumsavan became president and Khamtay Siphandon party leader.




Laos is the least developed and most enigmatic of the three former French Indochinese states. A ruinous sequence of colonial domination, internecine conflict and dogmatic socialism finally brought the country to its knees in the 1970s, and almost 10% of the population left. Now, after a decade and a half of isolation from the outside world, this landlocked, sparsely populated country is enjoying peace, stabilising its political and economic structures and admitting foreign visitors.

The lack of foreign influence offers travellers an unparalleled glimpse of traditional South-East Asian life. From the fertile lowlands of the Mekong River valley to the rugged Annamite highlands, travellers who have made it to Laos tend to agree that this country is the highlight of SE Asia.

Laos is bordered by Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, China and Myanmar (Burma). Rivers and mountains dominate the country's topography. The largest river, the Mekong (Nam Khong), runs the entire length of the country, providing fertile flood plains for agriculture and forming the country's border with Thailand. It is also Laos' main transportation artery.

Over 70% of the country consists of mountains and plateaus. The Annamite Chain, bordering Vietnam, runs parallel to the Mekong for half the length of the country. The rugged mountains average between 1500-3000m (4920-9840ft) in height, and at their southern extremity open up to form the Bolaven Plateau, a 10,000 sq km (6200 sq m) area that produces mountain rice, coffee, tea and other high-altitude crops. The highest mountain is Phu Bia (2819m/9246ft) in northern Laos.

Two-thirds of Laos is forested and only 10% of the country is considered suitable for agriculture. Given the topography, it is fortunate that Laos has one of the lowest pop densities in Asia - around 18 people per sq km (about 11 per sq mi). Most of the population is settled along fertile river valleys, although there are many small tribes living in the hills. The largest population centres, Vientiane and Savannakhet, are both in the Mekong River Valley; 85% of the population lives in rural areas.

Despite large-scale bombing and the use of defoliants in the eastern section of the country during the US war with Vietnam, Laos has one of the most pristine ecologies in South-East Asia. Vegetation consists primarily of varieties associated with monsoon forests such as teak, Asian rosewood and bamboo. About 50% of the country is covered with primary forest and another 30% with secondary growth. The forests are endangered by illegal logging and slash-and-burn agriculture.

Endemic animals include the concolor gibbon, snub-nosed langur, lesser panda and raccoon dog. Exotic species found in neighbouring countries are usually found in greater numbers in Laos because of the forest cover and fewer hunters. They include the Javan mongoose, Siamese hare, leopard cat, tiger, Irrawaddy dolphin, and a few Javan rhinos thought to survive in the Bolaven Plateau. There are 17 recently-opened Biodiversity Conservation Areas scattered throughout the country.

The annual Asian monsoon cycle gives Laos two distinct seasons: May to October is wet, and November to April is dry. Temperatures vary according to altitude. In the Mekong River Valley, the highest temperatures occur between March and April (38C/100F) and the lowest between December and January (15C/59F). During most of the rainy season, daytime temperatures average around 29C (84F) in the lowlands and 25C (77F) in the mountain valleys.

History

The country has long been occupied by migrating Thais (including Shans, Siamese and Lao) and slash-and-burn Hmong/Mien hill tribes. The first Lao principalities were consolidated in the 13th century following the invasionoof south-west China by Kublai Khan's Mongol hordes. In the mid-14th century, a Khmer-sponsored warlord, Fa Ngum, combined a number of scattered principalities around Luang Prabang to form his own kingdom, Lan Xang ('a million elephants'). The kingdom initially prospered, but internal divisions and pressure from neighbours caused it to split in the 17th century into three warring kingdoms centred on Luang Prabang, Wieng Chan (Vientiane) and Champasak.

By the end of the 18th century, most of Laos came under Siamese (Thai) suzerainty but the territory was also being pressured by Vietnam. Unable or unwilling to serve two masters, the country went to war with Siam in the 1820s. This disastrous ploy led to all three kingdoms falling under Thai control. By the late 19th century, France had established French Indochina in the Vietnamese provinces of Tonkin and Annam. The Thais eventually ceded all of Laos to the French, who were content to use the territory merely as a buffer between its colonial holdings and Siam.

During WWII, the Japanese occupied Indochina and a Lao resistance group, Lao Issara, was formed to prevent the return of the French. Independence was achieved in 1953 but conflict persisted between royalist, neutralist and communist factions. The USA began bombing North Vietnamese troops on the Ho Chi Minh Trail in eastern Laos in 1964, escalating conflict between the royalist Vientiane government and the communist Pathet Lao who fought alongside the North Vietnamese. By the time a ceasefire was negotiated in 1973, Laos had the dubious distinction of being the most bombed country in the history of warfare.

A coalition government was formed, but when Saigon fell in 1975, most of the royalists left for France. The Pathet Lao peacefully took control of the country and the Lao People's Democratic Republic came into being in December 1975. Lao remained closely allied with the Vietnamese communists throughout the 1980s. Although many private businesses were closed down after 1975, there has been a relaxation of rules since 1989, and the move towards a market economy has led to a small-scale economic revival. Laos cemented ties with its neighbours when it was welcomed into ASEAN in July 1997.

Major products/industries: Rice, tobacco, coffee, tin mining, timber, and opium Major trading partners: Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Japan

Culture About 60% of Lao, mainly the lowland Lao and a sprinkling of Thai tribes, are Theravada Buddhists. Every Lao Buddhist male is expected to become a monk for a short period of his life, usually between school and starting a career or getting married. The main non-Buddhist 'religion' is phii worship, a spirit cult which is officially banned. Hmong/Mien tribes practise animism and ancestral worship, and some follow a Christian version of the cargo cult, believing Jesus Christ will arrive in a jeep, dressed in combat fatigues. A small number of Lao - mostly the French-educated elite - are Christians.

Young Buddhist monks (14K) The official language of Laos is Lao, as spoken and written in Vientiane. As an official language, it has successfully become the lingua franca between all Lao and non-Lao ethnic groups in Laos. There are five main dialects in the country, each of which can be divided into further subdialects. All Lao dialects are closely related to the languages spoken in Thailand, northern Myanmar and pockets of China's Yunnan Province.

Traditional culture in Laos has been heavily influenced by various strains of Khmer, Vietnamese and Thai cultures. The lowland Lao share the same ancestry as many Thai tribes, so the similarities between Lao and Thai culture are especially strong. This can be seen in Lao sculpture, classical music, dance-dramas and cuisine. Lao folk music is more indigenous, based around the khaen (a double row of bamboo reeds fitted into a hardwood sound box). Folk music is often accompanied by dancing or bawdy theatre. The focus of most traditional art has been primarily religious and includes wats (temples), stupas and several distinctively Lao representations of Buddha. The Lao remain skilful carvers and weavers, but traditional silversmithing and goldsmithing are declining arts.

Rice is the foundation for all Lao meals, and almost all dishes are cooked with fresh ingredients such as vegetables, freshwater fish, poultry, duck, pork, beef or water buffalo. Lime juice, lemon grass and fresh coriander give the food its characteristic tang, and various fermented fish concoctions are used to salt the food. Hot chillies, garlic, mint, ground peanuts, tamarind juice, ginger and coconut milk are other seasonings. Dishes are often served with an accompanying plate of lettuce, mint, coriander, mung-bean sprouts, lime wedges or basil - diners then create their own lettuce-wrapped titbits.

Events Festivals in Laos are generally linked to agricultural seasons or historical Buddhist holidays. The lunar new year begins in mid-Apr and the entire country comes to a halt and celebrates. Houses are cleaned, offerings are made in wats and everyone gets dowsed by water. Bun Bang Fai (the rocket festival) takes place in May. It's an irreverent pre-Buddhist celebration with plenty of processions, music and dancing, accompanied by the firing of bamboo rockets to prompt the heavens to send rain. The week-long That Luang Festival in Vientiane in November has the whole repertoire of fireworks, candlelit processions and music.

Facts for the Traveller Visas: Fifteen-day visas are now available for US$50 on arrival at Vientiane's Wattay International Airport and at the Intl Friendship Bridge at the Nong Khai border crossing between Laos and Thailand, though you'll need to meet a series of conditions to get one. Fourteen-day tour visas are generally issued through authorised travel agencies rather than embassies; Lao embassies occasionally issue visas to individuals, but there seem to be no hard and fast rules. Visas cost between US$40-100, and can be renewed for a further 15 days in Laos. Health risks: cholera, dengue fever, hepatitis, Japanese encephalitis, malaria, rabies, typhoid Time: UTC plus seven hours Electricity: 220V Weights & Measures: metric with local variations in rural areas (see the conversion table.)

Money & Costs

Currency: the kip Relative costs:

* Budget meal: US$1 * Restaurant meal: US$3 * Top-end meal: US$10 * Budget hotel (travelling alone): US$5-8 * Mid-range hotel (on a tour): US$15-25 * Top-end hotel: US$25-60

Staying in Vientiane will cost you more than accommodation elsewhere - expect to pay from $5 in the capital and about $1.75 in the country for a basic room. In a flasher tourist hotel you'll pay from about $25 a night, up to around $60. An average meal will set you back less than $2 - a cup of coffee costs about 20c, a bowl of rice noodle soup about 50c to $1 and a litre of beer about 70c. All up, you could get by on $10 a day in the big cities, $6 a day in the country, but that's for the rockiest of rock-bottom budgets. If you want air-con, hot water and foreign food, you'll be paying between $25 and $60 a day.

The Lao kip is the only legal currency, but Thai baht and US dollars are regularly accepted, particularly in the cities. Often you'll be asked for kip for cheap purchases, baht for mid-range buys, and dollars if you want something expensive. In Vientiane you'll be able to change most major currencies, but in the country you should stick to US dollars or baht - you may also have trouble with travellers' cheques outside the capital. Banks will give you a better rate than moneychangers, and you'll get more for travellers' cheques than cash.

There's no need to tip in Laos, except at upscale restaurants where around 10% is expected. If you're buying things in markets or hiring a vehicle, always bargain; at shops it's usually worth a try. Keep it low-key: the Lao are generally gentle hagglers.

[Image]When to Go

The best time to visit is between November and February - during these months it rains least and isn't too hot. If you're heading up into the mountains, May and July can also be pleasant. Roads can be washed out during rainy season (Jul to Oct), but there's plenty of river travel. Peak tourist months are December to February and during August, although there are relatively few visitors at any time.

[Image] Attractions

Vientiane The capital city and seat of government sits on a bend in the Mekong River amidst fertile alluvial plains. Despite its chequered past, Vientiane (pronounced 'Wieng Chan' by the locals) is a laid-back city with a number of interesting wats and lively markets. The most important national monument in Laos is Pha That Luang (the Great Sacred Stupa), which is a symbol of both Buddhism and Lao sovereignty. Other sights of interest include Wat Pha Kaew, a former royal temple which is now a museum; Wat Si Saket, the oldest temple in Vientiane; and the Morning Market, a sprawling collection of stalls which operate from 6 am to 6 pm. Wat Xieng Khuan is a collection of compelling Buddhist and Hindu sculptures located in a meadow, 24km (15mi) south of Vientiane.

Vientiane has around 10 top-end hotels and as many guesthouses, many of them moderately expensive, but plenty of lower-priced rooms have become available in the last few years. Most of the accommodation is in central Vientiane. You can eat at cafes, street stalls, beer halls or restaurants, offering everything from rice noodles to filet mignon. For good Lao meals, try the Dong Palan Night Market on the east bank of the Nong Chan ponds.

Vientiane is not the illicit entertainment palace it was in the early 1970s: brothels are now prohibited, the marijuana stands have disappeared from the markets and beer has replaced opium as the nightly drug of choice. Entertainment ranges from live music and discos - usually electrified Lao folk music or Western pop - to Thai, Chinese, Indian and even Bulgarian films. Tribal crafts, fabrics, jewellery and furniture are all good buys in Vientiane.

Luang Prabang

This 'city' is just barely waking from a long slumber brought on by decades of war and revolution. Luang Prabang has only 16,000 residents and few concessions to 20th-century living, save for infrequent electricity and a few cars and trucks. Rush hour occurs when school students are let out and the streets fill with bicycles.

Its main tourist attractions are its historic temples - 32 of the original 66 built before French colonisation still stand - and its lovely setting encircled by mountains at the confluence of the Khan and Mekong rivers. Sights include the Royal Palace Museum, Wat Xieng Thong and Wat Wisunlat. Just 25km (15.5mi) along the Mekong River are the famous Pak Ou caves, some of which are filled with Buddha images; 29km (18mi) south of the town are the beautiful Kuang Si waterfalls.

[Image]Off the Beaten Track

Plain of Jars

The mysterious Plain of Jars is an undeveloped area near Phonsavan in Xieng Khuang Province where huge jars of unknown origin are scattered, the biggest weighing as much as six tonnes (6.6 tons). The jars have been fashioned from solid stone, which doesn't seem to have come from the area. Many of the smaller jars have been taken away by collectors, but there are still several hundred in the five major groups. Thong Hai Hin, the biggest and most accessible site, has two pavilions and restrooms built for the crown prince, as well as the largest jar on the plain.

[Image] Kids with fighting beetles, Xieng Khuang Province (22K)

Ho Chi Minh Trail

For those interested in war history, the Ho Chi Minh Trail is a network of dirt paths and gravel roads running parallel to the Laos-Vietnam border. The trail was used by the North Vietnamese in the Vietnam War and by the Viet Minh against the French in the 1950s. Although the North Vietnamese denied the existence of the trail, and the USA denied bombing it, 1.1 million tons of explosives were dropped on the area between 1965 and '69, as well as massive quantities of herbicides. The trail is fairly remote, so there's been little in the way of tidying up: you'll see helicopters, fighter planes and a whole heap of other war junk. The closest town is Sepon, about 600km (370mi) south-east of Vientiane. Sepon was flattened during the war, and its now little more than a collection of shacks. You can get there by bus from Savan.

Bolaven Plateau

The Bolaven Plateau is a fertile area where Laven tribespeople grow some of the most highly-regarded coffee in the world. Fruit, cardamom and rattan are also grown here. The plateau is a centre of Mon-Khmer culture, Alak, Katu, Ta-oy and Suay villages in the area. Katu and Alak groups live in circles of thatched houses and are known for their yearly buffalo sacrifice, the centrepiece of some pretty spectacular ceremonies. Alak, Katu and Lawae women traditionally tattooed their faces, but this custom is dying out. The plateau also has some lovely waterfalls: Taat Lo plunges into a large pool which is gorgeous for swimming.

[Image] Activities

Due to the underdeveloped tourist infrastructure in Laos, there are virtually no organised activities. For the adventurous and resourceful, this can be a real boon. The hilly nature of the country makes it perfect trekking territory, though overnight camping is not allowed; ask around towns for a local guide. Mountain-biking is the next best way to take advantage of the terrain; there are bikes for higher in Vientiane and Luang Prabang. On Don Khon, an island in the Mekong River, there's an interesting walk across the southern tip of the island, which offers the chance to see Irrawaddy dolphins in the late afternoon between December and May.

[Image] Getting There & Away

There are flights from Vientiane's Wattay airport to Bangkok, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon), Phnom Penh, Singapore, Yangon (Rangoon) and Guangzhou and Kunming in China. There is a US$5 departure tax. In 1998 Lao Aviation commenced services from Luang Prabang to Chang Mai in Thailand. Flights leave every Thursday, and travellers planning to arrive from Thailand will need to organise a Laotian visa in advance as they cannot be obtained on arrival at Luang Prabang.

It is now legal for non-Thai foreigners to cross the Mekong into Laos at the following points: Nong Khai (near Vientiane), Nakhon Phanom (opposite Tha Khaek), Chiang Khong (opposite Huay Xai) and Mukdahan (opposite Savannakhet). Use of the much celebrated Australian-built bridge spanning the Mekong at Nong Khai is hampered by controls on foreign-registered vehicles, but individual travellers should experience nothing more harrassing than a slight delay. There is a land border crossing to Thailand at Chong Mek-Ubon Ratchathani, but you must have a visa valid for entry via Chong Mek and Pakse arranged in advance. It's possible to cross to or from Vietnam via Lao Bao if you have a valid Vietnamese visa. Entry to Laos is also possible from China's Yunnan Province at Boten.

[Image] Getting Around

The road system is relatively undeveloped outside Vientiane (though it is getting better), so even relatively short distances take a long time to cover. Bus services are limited to the areas around provincial centres; long-distance buses are rare. Arranging rides with trucks carrying cargo or trucks converted into passenger carriers is an acceptable form of travelling long distances. The alternative mode of getting around is river transport. Rivers are the true highways of Laos; the main thoroughfares are the Mekong, Nam Ou, Nam Khan, Nam Tha, Nam Ngum and Se Don. For long journeys, catch diesel river ferries which often have rudimentary accommodation on board or areas for sleeping on deck. For shorter trips it's usually best to hire a river taxi or, in the upper Mekong, a speedboat.

There are a few taxis in the larger towns, plenty of three-wheeled motorcycles and, for shorter distances, pedicabs. Bargaining skills will be required. Small 100cc motorbikes can be rented in Vientiane, Luang Prabang and Savannakhet. Bicycles can be rented only in Vientiane and Luang Prabang.

The only land-locked country in South-East Asia, Laos covers an area of 235,800 square kilometres with an estimated population of 3,600,000. It has border with China in the North, Vietnam in the East, Cambodia in the South and Thailand and Burma in the West. As a country with many neighbours, Laos has often witnessed population movements across its borders at different stages of its history. These have usually been in the form of migration by farmers search of new lands, or refugees fleeing political persecution from country such as China or Vietnam. In Laos itself, internal migration by farmers and people affected by war or economic recession has also frequently occurred.

However, at no times had these population movements been so massive, involving tens of thousands of people, as has been the case of refugees during the Indochina War which ended with the communist victory in 1975. Modern warfare, continuous antagonism between dissenting political groups, fear of reprisals against those on the losing side of the war and many other factors contributed to make people seek freedom both within and outside Laos. When peace negotiations began in 1973 between the Lao warring factions 750,000 of its 3,000,000 population had become displaced by the war. Since 1975, more than 300,000 Lao had sought refuge in Thailand and other countries.

This pattern of population displacement arising from foreign interference, internal power struggles and animosities between neighboring groups has persisted over the centuries in Laos. An examination of the past may, thus, help us to better understand one of the tragic consequences of this unyielding power play, the country's recurrent refugee problem during the last 30 years.

Early history: The Lao are believed to have migrated from South China some time in the thirteenth century A.D. and established themselves along the Mekong and Me Nam Rivers. Legend has it that the first Lao King, Khun Borom, descended from heaven and had seven sons, each of whom was given a portion of this occupied territory.

In 1353, Fa Ngum, a Lao prince exiled to the Court of Angkor (Cambodia) and a convert to Buddhism, returned to Laos with a small army and fought his way up the Mekong river. He established his court at Muong Swa on Upper Mekong, which he later named Luang Prabang (city of the Golden Buddha) after the name of a golden Buddha statue, Prabang brought by Fa Ngum from Angkor. In the following years, he conquered the neighbouring principalities, consolidating them into the Kingdom of Lan Xang (Million Elephants), with Luang Prabang as capital and Buddhism the official religion. This kingdom extended beyond today's Laos to include the western province of Vietnam and northeast Thailand where Lao place names and Lao-speaking inhabitants can still be found today.

Fa Ngum was succeeded in 1373 by his son, Sam Sen Thai, whose reign as marked by the building of many Buddhist temples and the creation of a new system of local government, under which local administrators were selected by the King or a Council of notables, with power being centralized in an army of 150,000 men supported by a supply corps of 20,000 persons (Dommen, 1964:6). After the death of Sam Sen Thai in 1416, the kingdom became prey to internal dissension and foreign incursions. Vietnamese troops invaded Lan Xang in 1478 and captured the capital of Luang Prabang, but were later pushed back. There were also other incursions from the Burmese and the Thai from the West, which forced the capital to be moved from Luang Prabang to Vientiane in order to avoid capture by Burmese troops.

The first Westerners to arrive in Lan Xang were missionaries and traders, who saw little prospects for commerce or evangelical work during the care-free reign of Souligna Vongsa in the mid-seventeenth century. Souligna Vongsa died in 1694, following which internal dissension brought about a split of the country into three separate kingdoms Luang Prabang, Vientiane and Champassak. Each of the kingdoms were intermittently invaded by neighbouring Siam (Thailand), Burma and Annam (Vietnam). After several years of war, the kingdom of Vientiane became a tributary state to Siam, and was annexed by the latter in 1825 following an unsuccessful uprising by its ruler Chao Anou.

As a result, tens of thousands of Lao were forced to move from Laos to settle along the west bank of the Mekong for easier control by the Thai. Today, there are more Lao-speaking people in northeastern Thailand than in Laos. In 1832, Annam annexed the principality of Xieng Khouang in northeastern Laos, and Siam took control of the Kingdom of Champassak in the South. All that was left of Lan Xang was Luang Prabang, which was by then paying tribute to Siam but claimed as a tributary state by Annam.

The French made their first colonial trust into Indochina in 1862, with the armed occupation of the western provinces of Cochin China, today's South Vietnam on the pretext of protecting French missionaries. They pushed towards Cambodia the following year, leaving Laos alone until after their conquest of Vietnam and Cambodia. In 1885, Siam felt threatened by the setting up of French military outposts along the Annamite Mountains overlooking Laos, and decided to send troops to occupy the Plain of Jars in central northern Laos. Thai officials were then dispatched to Luang Prabang to supervise the Kingdom's affairs, whereupon the French sent a warning note from Hanoi to Bangkok and asked for joint supervision of the Luang Prabang Kingdom, claiming that the latter and Xieng Khouang were originally under the sovereignty of the Court of Hue, now a French protectorate. Siam agreed for France to post a vice-consult to Luang Prabang. August Pavie arrived in Luang Prabang in 1887 and, as Wilfred Burchett (1970: 69) put it, "started the long process of intrigues and demonstration of force by which France gradually positioned herself for the complete take-over of Laos." French rule from 1893 to 1949 saw the split of Laos in two: the Kingdom of Luang Prabang and the Kingdom of Champassak.

French Domination: According to a treaty signed by Siam with France on Oct 1893 all of Laos east of the Mekong was to be ceded to France while that along the west bank remained with Siam. Subsequently certain regions west of the river in the South and on the North were also transferred to France giving Laos its present shape and size. The French established the new colony's administrative center in Vientiane maintaining Luang Prabang as the royal capital with King Sisavang Vong on the throne and as the Head of all Laos. The French controlled all the Lao principalities and kingdoms of Luang Prabang, Xieng Khouang, Vientiane and Champassak by 1905 thereby giving them the name of Laos or many Lao. French control also put an end to incursions from Siam, Annam and Burma.

Internally the French had to cope with revolts among the tribes sparked by French taxation and interference in tribal affairs. The Kha rebellion in 1901 took six years to stop and was led by a Kha chief in the Bolovem Plateau in southern Laos, Kommadam whose surviving sons later joined the communist Pathet Lao In 1945 (Burchett op.cit.: 70-71). The second insurrection by Tai tribes in Phong Saly Province took place in 1914 and the Hmong started another uprising in Sam Neua in 1919 both of which took two years to settle and cost many lives .

Because Laos was believed to offer little short-term economic gains, the French did not attempt to introduce economic changes to the country. They relied on existing systems of local government and avoided upsetting Lao traditions by manifesting their presence mainly in fiscal control judicial organization and education. French became the accepted language in administration and among the middle and upper classes in Lao society. Most of today's older generation Lao elite received their education in France. By the late 1930s about 600 French officials were looking after the welfare of more than one million natives in Laos (Dommen op.cit.: 12-13).

The French began losing control over Indochina in 1940 when France fell to Germany and agreed for Japan to station troops in Indochina in exchange for the safe return of its resident citizens. This agreement was ruptured by the Japanese in March 1945 after they imprisoned French troops and declared an end to French rule in Indochina. In Laos, the Japanese persuaded King Sisavang Vong and Prince Phetsarat, Premier and Viceroy to proclaim the independence of the Kingdom of Luang Prabang on April 1945.

After the surrender of the Japanese in August, Phetsarat announced the reunification of Luang Prabang and Champassak into one Laos and asked Allied Powers to recognize its independence. However a handful of French officers managed to return to Luang Prabang and requested the King to dismiss Phetsarat. The former Viceroy then formed a resistance group with other young Lao nationalists known as Lao Issara or the Free Lao movement. This group denounced all treaties with France, deposed the King for his continued submission to French rule and put up Phetsarat as head of a Provisional Government whose Defence Minister was Phetsarat's half-brother Prince Souphanouvong. In October 1945, they further signed a treaty of friendship and alliance with North Vietnam (NV). However French troops re-occupied Laos in early 1946 after defeating small armed resistance units organized by the Lao Issara with NV assistance. Phetsarat and his followers fled to Bangkok, Thailand where they set up a government in exile (Adams, 1970: 100-120).

Supported by French, King Sisavang Vong and his son, Crown Prince Savang Vathana formed a new cabinet known as the Royal Lao Government (RLG). An agreement was signed in August 1946 merging the rest of Laos with Luang Prabang under King Sisavang Vong. A constitution was proclaimed in 1947 to give Laos a parliamentary system of government with a popularity elected National Assembly. By July 1949 Laos was given the status of an independent state within the French Union. Prince Souvanna Phouma, Souphanouvong's half-brother and 25 other members of the Bangkok government in exile decided to compromise with the French and returned to Laos to join the RLG. Phetsarat and Souphanouvong disagreed on this arrangement and remained in Thailand, preferring complete independence from France even at the expense of a shift to the left in order to fight the French with the support of Ho Chi Minh, the NV communist leader.

In February 1950 France transferred sovereignty to Laos which was by then also recognized by Great Britain and the United States. Another treaty with France in 1954 made Laos a fully independent state. By the end of 1954 all French administrative and military power was relinquished to the Lao authorities.

The Indochina War In 1950, Souphanouvong left Thailand for northeast Laos where he establishdd a resistance government under the control of his newly formed left-wing political organization, the Pathet Lao (PL) or Lao State. To broaden support for his resistance activities, he formed alliance with NV and Cambodian liberation groups. With the help of NV troops and tribal leaders already in opposition to the RLG, Souphanouvong was able to expand guerrilla activities along the entire border of Laos and Vietnam, from Phongsaly Province in the north to the Bolovens Plateau in the south.

In Mar 1953, Vietminh forces swept into northern Laos, and occupied the province capital of Sam Neua, making it henceforth the PL headquarters. Alarmed by the Vietnamese offensive in the direction of the Mekong, Thailand tried to call for United Nations intervention, as happened in South Korea in 1950, but this was not supported by the United States. President Eisenhower, seeking to draw Laos into a military alliance, preferred to press France to give full independence to the country while continuing to assist financially French military activities against Indochinese anti-colonial guerrillas.

The Viet Minh incursion into north and south Laos were stopped by December 1953. In the spring of 1954, however, General Giap's Viet Minh troops moved west again, threatening the town of Luang Prabang and helping the Pathet Lao to enlarge further their liberated zones in the north-east and other areas along the Mekong in Laos (Devillers, 1970: 41).

The advance of the Viet Minh and their PL counterparts allowed the guerrillas to spread propaganda and greatly extend their territories. This situation was made all the more possible by the battle of Dien Bien Phu, North Vietnam which called for France to commit its finest soldiers to defend a position far removed from Laos. The Viet Minh won this most decisive battle and did not, therefore, hesitate to continue their military involvement with the Pathet Lao in north-eastern Laos in order to liberate all of Indochina from foreign domination.

Following the French defeat in Dien Bien Phu in May 1954, an international conference to end the First Indochina War was held in 1954 in Geneva, Switzerland, jointly chaired by Great Britain and the Soviet Union, and attended by the United States, China, Cambodia, North Vietnam, South Vietnam and Laos. Among other things, the Geneva agreements called for an end to hostilities in the Indochinese states, and gave the RLG sovereignty over the whole of Laos. The Pathet Lao were, however, allowed temporary control of two north-eastern provinces, Sam Neua and Phong Saly, to be used for regrouping its forces, pending its integration with the RLG through general elections. All foreign troops were to be withdrawn from the country, except for a small French mission to assist the RLG with its military training. A permanent International Control Commission consisting of Indian, Canadian and Polish representatives was created and charged with supervising the cease-fire and the neutrality of Laos.

North Vietnamese and American Involvement In 1950 when France withdrew its troops from Lao, to defend the Viet Minh's attacks from North Vietnam, Laos had to form its own army to counter PL and NV offensives. The Royal Lao Army (RLA) was, thus, organized under French instructions and with funds supplied to France mainly by the US. Since 1949 American policy-makers believing that Chinese communist expansion in Southeast Asia must be stopped, had been helping the French and Indochinese anti-Communist groups in their fight against left-wing guerrillas (Foreign Area Studies 1967: 31).

Despite negotiation attempts by the US, French authorities would only allow direct economic assistance in the form of material grants to Indochina, assuring American negotiators that the war would be brought to a successful conclusion if only the United States furnished France with the wherewithal" (Dommen op.cit.: 35). In Sep 1951, the US signed an economic assistance agreement with the Pro-French RGL headed by Phoui Sananikone, an agreement which was to remain the basis for American aid to Laos for the years to come.

The cost of fighting the independence war against French colonial rule in Indochina was estimated to be US$ 954 millions most off which went to help meet the needs of French military requirements towards the end of the Indochina War. By September 1953, the US was believed to be paying for fully 70 per cent of the cost of the war, mostly in the forms of ammunitions, vehicles, naval crafts, planes, and small arms (Dommen, op.cit.: 46). Two hundred American ground personnel were also stationed in Indochina to assist the French with the repair and maintenance of aircraft in January 1954.

Because of this massive support, American leaders were deeply disturbed when French forces were defeated at their last stand in Dien Bien Phu. When the Geneva agreements were signed in July 1954, American military and economic aid worth US$ 25 million was aboard ships bound for Indochina. At the Geneva Conference, John Foster Dulles, the American Secretary of State, suspicious oft the communists not adhering to the agreements, stated that his country did not consider itself bound by them, thus opening the way for further American intervention in the region (Dommen, op.cit.: 56).

The French withdrawal from Indochina after the Geneva cease-fire was seen to leave it and the rest of Southeast Asia unprotected against communist invasions. The US, therefore, stepped in by offering collective security through the formation of the South-East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) in September 1954 with Britain, France, Thailand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Australia and New Zealand as members. The Treaty, signed in Manila, would guarantee South-East Asian countries of speedy SEATO and American intervention in the event of any military threat from China. Despite the fact that Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam were declared neutral by the Geneva agreements, SEATO nevertheless extended its protection to the three Indochina states, thereby involving them directly in the cold war between communist and the Free World superpowers.

Soon after SEATO was formed, the Lao cabinet suffered a severe crisis, following the assassination of its Defense Minister who was a strong advocate of the Geneva Accords. The Lao government which was headed by Prince Souvanna Phouma, another advocate of the neutrality of Laos, resigned due to "foreign interference" (Thee, 1970: 129). A new cabinet was formed in November 1954 under Katay Don Sasorith, a SEATO supporter. This was followed by the opening of the United States Operation Mission in Vientiane on 1 January 1955, to channel American aid directly into Laos. American advisers were sent to put in place the necessary arrangement for the US to use its foreign assistance to expand the size of the RLA into 25,000 men. These Lao troops would act as the first line of defense against possible communist incursions long enough to allow intervention by SEATO members (Cousins and McCoy, 1970: 340).

In the meantime, the PL were maintaining a tight grip on the two north-eastern provinces of Sam Neua and Phong Saly, expanding its army with the assistance of NV military and political cadres, who replaced the Viet Minh soldiers fighting in Laos prior to the Geneva Conference. The RLG, with encouragement from American advisers, sent troops into PL zones and frequent military clashes occurred between the two sides (Langer and Zasloff, 1970: 62). Under these circumstances, negotiations for national integration between the RLG and the PL often resulted in dead-lock. The RLG wanted to integrate PL armed forces into the RLA first, while the Pathet Lao insisted on military integration only after a political compromise had been reached.

The general elections for national consolidation scheduled by the Geneva agreements for August 1955 took place in December without the involvement of the PL. The results however showed a strong neutralist majority and Prince Souvanna Phouma the neutralist leader resumed office as Prime Minister in Vientiane. He again tried to negotiate with the PL pledging to work for national unity and friendly relations with all countries including North Vietnam and other communist states.

In July 1956 Laos was formally recognized by the Soviet Union. After talks between the Royal Lao Government and the newly formed PL Patriotic Front or Neo Lao Hak Sat (NLHS) in August, Souvanna Phouma and Souphanouvong decided on a Government of National Union with PL representatives. This government would adhere to the five principles of peaceful co-existence, the pursuit of a neutralist foreign policy, the prohibition of military alliances and the withdrawal of foreign troops from Laos. By Nov 1957, Souphanouvong agreed to transfer the two northern provinces under his control to the Kingdom of Laos, in return for which he and another Pathet Lao members, Phoumi Vongvichit, were admitted as cabinet ministers in the RLG.

Deepening Civil War At the elections held in May 1958, the Neo Lao Hak Sat and its allies won 13 of the 21 contested seats in the National Assembly. Souphanouvong became Minister of Economic Affairs in the new government. This re-alignment of political power was seen as a threat to the privileged positions of American-supported politicians and the new class of wealthy officials and businessmen. They therefore decided to form a political pressure group, the Committee for the Defence of National Interest (CDNI) reputed to have the backing of the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (Ackland 1970:149). The US in turn stopped all payments to the RLG, a hard blow to an economy that had come to rely heavily on American aid.

On July Souvanna Phouma lost a vote of confidence in the National Assembly and was forced to resign. He was succeeded by Phoui Sananikone, who formed a new cabinet with the support of CDNI members. The Pathet Lao were no longer represented in the new pro-American government. After taking up office, Phoui Sananikone and his ministers shifted Lao policy to the right dissolved the National Assembly and denounced the 1954 Geneva truce. Attempts were also made to disperse and neutralize PL soldiers who had been integrated into the RLA a few months earlier. However the last PL battalion which was still awaiting integration managed to escape and recapture Phong Saly and Sam Neua provinces, their former strongholds.

The elections of Apr 1960 resulted in all 59 seats in the National Assembly going to right-wing candidates. This was followed by the arrest of Souphanouvong and his deputies but they subsequently escaped from jail a month later and went back to Sam Neua. Civil war was thus resumed between the RLG and the PL with the former charging North Vietnam with aggression against Laos through its military assistance to PL and the latter denouncing supporters of US imperialism. Phoui Sananikone resigned under right-wing military pressure and handed all power to General Phoumi Nosavan, the head of the RLA.

In Aug 1960, a neutralist Lao army captain Kong Le dissatisfied with this pro-American stance overthrew the Nosavan government and re-instated Souvanna Phouma as Prime Minister. Nosavan and his supporters fled to southern Laos to set up their own government in Savannakhet under Prince Boun Oum Na Champassak. Backed by U.S. aid, Nosavan soon launched a military attack on the neutralist government of Souvanna Phouma in Vientiane, forcing the latter to accept aid from the Soviet Union. By the end of 1960, Nosavan forces were able to recapture Vientiane and the right-wing Boun Oum government was transferred there. Kong Le and his neutralist forces retreated north and joined forces with the PL, further exacerbating military clashes between Neutralist-PL forces and Nosavan troops.

In order to settle the conflict an international conference was again convened in Geneva Switzerland in May 196l. After much negotiations all three parties (leftist, neutralist and rightist) agreed on the formation of a coalition government with Souvanna Phouma as Prime Minister. However, troops of the three factions still continued fighting one another, ignoring the directives of the re-activated International Control Commission first set up to supervise the 1954 Geneva agreements. Souvanna Phouma, Boun Oum and Souphanouvong undertook a new series of talks in Laos in June 1962 and again decided to form a coalition government. A Lao delegation with representatives from all three factions was sent to Geneva in July 1962 to attend another International conference on the cease-fire and neutralism in Laos. A neutrality declaration was issued and agreed to by all interested parties, including the US, the Soviet Union, China and Great Britain.

Despite this new progress towards peace, the idea of a neutralist coalition government did not work when Laos continued to be the buffer zone between communist North Vietnam and pro-American Thailand (Toye, 1968). Right-wing politicians on the RLG side were not prepared to cooperate with the Neutralist or the Pathet Lao. Each side maintained its own soldiers in the areas under its control. Relations between the three groups deteriorated and military incidents went on the increase.

In an attempt to reach a compromise in their political differences, the leaders of the three factions met once more in April 1964 on the Plain of Jars which had been under Neutralist forces but now controlled by the PL. The meeting failed to produce the desired result, and Souvanna Phouma resigned as head of the government but was asked to take office again a few months later when no other suitable leader could be found. During August and September, another meeting was held in Paris, but it also failed to bring about national unity to Laos. By then, civil war prevailed throughout the country, with the PL receiving large amount of military aid and troops from North Vietnam while the anti-communist RLA was given substantial financial and material assistance from the United States. The PL and the RLG each now controlled haft of the country with Neutralist forces occupying small pockets of northern Laos.

American Bombing: Between 1955 and 1963, American support for the Royal Lao Government had been limited to development grants (totaling US $8 million), government budget support (US S320 million), and military assistance (US $152 million). According to Dommen (op.cit.: 104-105), this made Laos the biggest foreign aid recipient in the world at the time in terms of number of population (3,000,000). In 1964, this support was extended to include "unarmed" reconnaissance flight by American aircraft based in Udom Thani, Thailand, and in South Vietnam, carried out to see whether NV troops and war materials were sent to Laos

As American bombing raids on Vietcong supply routes increased in early 1965, North Vietnam began using the Ho Chi Minh trail linking North and South Vietnam through Laos. PL forces sought to extend their control over the areas along the Ho Chi Minh trail, and in doing so clashed with RLA troops , American planes were then diverted to bomb the trail, but the bombing was soon extended to PL controlled areas in northern Laos, involving strikes at enemy supply routes and troop concentrations and offering close tactical air support for RLA troops during ground battles (Brantman, 1970: 231).

This pattern soon formed the normal military engagement in Laos: government troops would move into an area only after it had been cleared of enemy forces by American bombing. The result was that Laos was subject to the most intense aerial bombardment, especially in the northeast where most of the offensives took place. Large areas became depopulated and scarred by bomb craters, and many historical places such the provincial town of Xieng Khouang were for ever obliterated. Unexploded ammunitions dropped by American planes and mines planted by soldiers also littered the ground and continue to kill or maim civilian population even today.

In Feb 1965, General Phoumi Nosavan (Commander of the Royal Lao Army) and General Siho (Head of the Lao National Police) led a coup against the Souvanna government in Vientiane. They were unsuccessful and fled to Thailand for political asylum. Again without the participation of the PL, new elections were held in July and Souvanna Phouma was returned to head the new government, now consisting of many anti-communist members.

The PL, with the backing of NV troops, attacked many RLA positions in the north and the greatly outnumbered government troops were forced to retreat. With American support, the Royal Lao Air Force was reinforced with old American T-28 bombers and used in co-ordinate ground-air operations against PL and NV forces. The PL announced in October 1965 that it had decided to call its army the Lao People's Liberation Army. They resolved to wage "an unflinching struggle against U.S. imperialism" by launching a series of offensives against RLG positions in southern Laos (FEER, 1966: 215).

In Sep 1966, Souvanna Phouma's government suffered a budget defeat. The National Assembly was dissolved and new elections were scheduled for early 1967. The situation became further confused by Air Force General Thao Ma, who sent 13 of his pilots to bomb army headquarters in Vientiane after he was dismissed from his post of commander of the Royal Lao Air Force. Thao Ma fled to Thailand for political asylum. Late that year, Kong Le, Commander of the Neutralist forces, also resigned in protest against the integration of his troops into the rightist Royal Lao Army, and left Laos to settle in France.

A new National Assembly was set up, following the new elections of January 1967. Again, Souvanna Phouma was asked to head the new government. Insurgent activities intensified in response to increased American bombing of PL territories, often averaging 100 strikes per day (FEER, 1967: 252). By the end of 1966, U.S. personnel in Laos were estimated to be more than 200, with 30 reported killed or missing. Many of this personnel were attached to the CIA and worked under code names as military advisers in civilian clothes. By August 1967, pilots of the Royal Thai Air Force were also flying bombing missions to Laos against PL and NV positions which now included all of Phong Saly and Sam Neua provinces, the Plain of Jars and areas along the Vietnamese border in the south.

Towards the end of January 1968, RLG positions east and north-west of Luang Prabang, the royal capital, were taken by PL forces. PL offensives were also directed against the town of Lao Ngam on the Bolovens Plateau, Saravane and Attopeu provinces. By July, anti-government forces were estimated at 40,000 NV and 25,000 PL, compared to the Royal Lao Army of some 50,000 men. Seven battalions of Thai mercenaries were also reported to be fighting around the Plain of Jars in support of the Special Forces of about 15,000 local guerrillas supported by the CIA (FEER, 1969: 213-214).

Following President Johnson's announcement of American bombing halt over North Vietnam in October 1968, U.S. aircraft switched their targets to Laos, with between 17,000 to 27,000 sorties a month to the PL zone (Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars, 1970: 49). On some days, 800 sorties were flown "dropping napalm, phosphorous and antipersonnel bombs ... on everything, buffaloes, cows, schools, temples, houses and people (Lewallen, 1971: 40). This increased bombing only made the PL more determined to counter-attack on the ground, resulting in many RLG strongholds being lost to them and traffic cut off between many RLG areas along the Mekong River.

Most of these PL victories were, however, reversed in September by U.S. bombing and counter-attacks from the Special forces, which drove communist troops out of Xieng Khouang, the Plain of Jars and Muong Phone on the Ho Chi Minh trail, the Pathet Lao military headquarters for southern Laos. Although the North Vietnamese Ambassador to Laos had talks with the Lao King and the Prime Minister, further attempts to arrive at a peaceful settlement of the Lao conflict were dimmed by the escalation of military activities. In America, the US war efforts in Laos which were so far hidden from the world, received wide coverage in the media, leading to many public protests an
The PL, with the backing of NV troops, attacked many RLA positions in the north and the greatly outnumbered government troops were forced to retreat. With American support, the Royal Lao Air Force was reinforced with old American T-28 bombers and used in co-ordinate ground-air operations against PL and NV forces. The PL announced in October 1965 that it had decided to call its army the Lao People's Liberation Army. They resolved to wage "an unflinching struggle against U.S. imperialism" by launching a series of offensives against RLG positions in southern Laos (FEER, 1966: 215).

In September 1966, Souvanna Phouma's government suffered a budget defeat. The National Assembly was dissolved and new elections were scheduled for early 1967. The situation became further confused by Air Force General Thao Ma, who sent 13 of his pilots to bomb army headquarters in Vientiane after he was dismissed from his post of commander of the Royal Lao Air Force. Thao Ma fled to Thailand for political asylum. Late that year, Kong Le, Commander of the Neutralist forces, also resigned in protest against the integration of his troops into the rightist Royal Lao Army, and left Laos to settle in France.

A new National Assembly was set up, following the new elections of January 1967. Again, Souvanna Phouma was asked to head the new government. Insurgent activities intensified in response to increased American bombing of PL territories, often averaging 100 strikes per day (FEER, 1967: 252). By the end of 1966, U.S. personnel in Laos were estimated to be more than 200, with 30 reported killed or missing. Many of this personnel were attached to the CIA and worked under code names as military advisers in civilian clothes. By August 1967, pilots of the Royal Thai Air Force were also flying bombing missions to Laos against PL and NV positions which now included all of Phong Saly and Sam Neua provinces, the Plain of Jars and areas along the Vietnamese border in the south.

Towards the end of January 1968, RLG positions east and north-west of Luang Prabang, the royal capital, were taken by PL forces. PL offensives were also directed against the town of Lao Ngam on the Bolovens Plateau, Saravane and Attopeu provinces. By July, anti-government forces were estimated at 40,000 NV and 25,000 PL, compared to the Royal Lao Army of some 50,000 men. Seven battalions of Thai mercenaries were also reported to be fighting around the Plain of Jars in support of the Special Forces of about 15,000 local guerrillas supported by the CIA (FEER, 1969: 213-214).

Following President Johnson's announcement of American bombing halt over North Vietnam in October 1968, U.S. aircraft switched their targets to Laos, with between 17,000 to 27,000 sorties a month to the PL zone (Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars, 1970: 49). On some days, 800 sorties were flown "dropping napalm, phosphorous and antipersonnel bombs ... on everything, buffaloes, cows, schools, temples, houses and people (Lewallen, 1971: 40). This increased bombing only made the PL more determined to counter-attack on the ground, resulting in many RLG strongholds being lost to them and traffic cut off between many RLG areas along the Mekong River.

Most of these PL victories were, however, reversed in September by U.S. bombing and counter-attacks from the Special forces, which drove communist troops out of Xieng Khouang, the Plain of Jars and Muong Phone on the Ho Chi Minh trail, the Pathet Lao military headquarters for southern Laos. Although the North Vietnamese Ambassador to Laos had talks with the Lao King and the Prime Minister, further attempts to arrive at a peaceful settlement of the Lao conflict were dimmed by the escalation of military activities. In America, the US war efforts in Laos which were so far hidden from the world, received wide coverage in the media, leading to many public protests and a US Senate Committee Inquiry in October 1969.

Peace Settlement: During the first two months of 1970, many of the important positions captured by the Special Forces a few months earlier were lost again to the enemy. Pathet Lao leaders then published a plan "for the political solution to the Lao problem proposing the ending of U.S. bombing, the withdrawal of pro-American troops from certain regions of the country and the formation of a provisional coalition government. In July, Souphanouvong, the PL leader, sent a member of the NLHS Central Committee, Prince Souk Vongsak, to hold discussion with Prime Minister Souvanna Phouma in Vientiane. An agreement was then reached for talks to begin officially between representatives of both parties at the Plain of Jars. By September, however, procedural difficulties had halted further negotiations for peace.

On the military front, a new offensive by the Special Forces and the Royal Lao army recaptured the former neutralist base of Moung Soui near the Plain of Jars, while persistent U.S. bombing made Laos the most heaviest bombed country in the new Indochina War with more than 300 sorties a day. Early in 1971, a conspiracy in southern Laos to overthrow the Vientiane government on behalf of rightist exiled Phoumi Nosavan was discovered, and the conspiracy leader, Colonel Bounleut Saikosy, fled to Thailand. The following April, the government foiled another similar attempted coup by junior Lao military officers, allegedly said to have the backing of conservative strongmen in the Thai government.

Incursion by American and South Vietnamese troops into southern Laos to search for NV arm caches in February 1971 drew only a mild protest from Souvanna Phouma. The RLA took advantage of the occasion to proclaim a nation-wide state of emergency. The North Vietnamese retaliated by attacking Long Cheng which served as the base of CIA Special Forces under General Vang Pao, the commander of the RLA Second Military Region. In March, NV troops seized Attapeu in the south of Laos, and also harassed Luang Prabang with rockets. By mid-May, NV soldiers had overrun almost the entire southern Laos.

The RLG counter attacked with Vang Pao's Special Forces against the Plain of Jars in the north and Lao-Thai troops against the Bolovens plateau in the south, driving most of the enemy from these areas by September. With PL territories largely depopulated, American bombing decreased to about haft of the previous year, although an average of 300 sorties a day was still carried out intermittently from Thailand throughout 1971. In August, the American State Department announced that the United States considered itself "entitled to withhold complete compliance from the 1962 Geneva agreements because of massive NV violations with close to 60,000 troops engaged in active combats in Laos. It also acknowledged the presence of Thai armed forces in the country but did not mention that they were financed by the Central Intelligence Agency (FEER, 1972: 226-227).

Peace negotiations were resumed during the summer of 1972. On the military front, it was a bad year for the RLG: the enemy took more of the initiative, their offensives lasted longer and that fighting was more intense (Zasloff, 1973 60).

NV troops again forced the Special Forces off the Plain of Jars, after continued fighting throughout most of the dry season. The Vietnamese also seized more than 100 kilometres of highway territory between Luang Prabang and Vientiane. In the south, most of the provinces of Attapeu, Saravane, and Sedone were lost to the communists. Although both sides suffered heavy casualties, the PL and their NV allies had taken more territory than ever before from the RLG. There were also renewed flows of refugees, mostly in the direction of RLG areas, with many of them forcibly evacuated to prevent their control by the PL. The military situation did not improved until the end of October, the date set for the beginning of the Vietnam cease-fire agreed to by Dr Kissinger and Le Duc To in their negotiation talks in Paris. Laos also witnessed a significant political change in 1972 after the January elections brought 41 new members to the National Assembly of 59, drawn mainly from lower socio-economic groups. Voters seemed to prefer new candidates unconnected with those responsible for prolonging the war: an indication of the general dissatisfaction with a self-concerned antiquated leadership of the past prevalent in the educated and politically entrenched upper classes (Zasloft, 1973: 67).

Despite efforts by right-wingers on at least two occasions to topple Souvanna Phouma, he was retained as Prime Minister. The United States, the Soviet Union, China, North Vietnam, France and Britain made known their preference for the government of Souvanna Phouma as the only "neutralist" force capable of bringing peace to Laos. This neutralist appearance notwithstanding, the RLG continued to survive on foreign aid, particularly from the US which was spending about ten times the Lao national budget on military and economic activities in Laos (Zasloff, 1973: 69).

As North Vietnam and the United States were moving towards accommodation in South Vietnam, negotiations for peace in Laos were resumed in Vientiane on 17 October 1972 with ten representatives on each side. Despite many break-downs, the delegates were able to work out a cease-fire (Brooke, 1973: 49-53). This was to be effective from mid-night 21 February 1973, following which all American bombing and foreign military activities were to stop. However, as in South Vietnam, the cease-fire was not observed. Military clashes continued to occur as a result of post-ceasefire offensives by the PL, necessitating calls for American air strikes in retaliation from Thailand.

The US was, by now tired of the war in Indochina and threatened to reduce aid to the RLG if peace could not be settled quickly with the PL. The RLG was forced to make many concessions to its enemy without reciprocal gains. These concessions included "giving the Pathet Lao equal power in a new coalition government; allowing foreign troops to remain on Laotian soil for 90 days after the ceasefire; referring to American and Thai presence in Laos while not specifically mentioning the North Vietnamese; and agreeing to the neutralisation of both the administrative and royal capitals" (New Leader. 1973: 12).

The war also imposed heavy social and economic burden on the RLG and the US which had to resettle and support 370,000 refugees displaced by military activities in various parts of the country. The Hmong which formed the backbone of the RLG defence in northern Laos, suffered the most casualties. Although numbering about 300,000 at the time, they made up 32% of this total refugee population, and 70% of the 155,000 displaced persons in Xieng Khouang province. More than 12,000 are said to have died fighting against the PL from 1962 to 1975 (Hamilton-Merritt, 1980: 36). This heavy toll was partly the result of military conscription by the RLA in its efforts to maintain military strength against PL and NY troops, and partly voluntary enlistment because the war made it impossible to carry out farming or to find other means of livelihood. Civilian casualties and loss of lives were also high due to sickness, malnutrition and military attacks on villages or refugee camps.

Communist Rule: After the signing of the ceasefire, speculations circulated about a possible coup by right-wing military men, many of whom were dissatisfied with the RLG's handling of peace negotiations with the communists. This coup did occur as predicted on 20 August 1973 when exiled former General Thao Ma and Colonel Bounleut Saykosi returned from Thailand and tried to overthrow Souvanna Phouma. However, RLG troops who were expecting this turn of events, managed to arrest and execute Thao Ma together with many of his 60 collaborators. Again, the RLG was disturbed to learn that Thailand, fearing a communist take-over of Laos, had been behind Thao Ma's move.

A Government of National Union was to be set up 30 days after the cease-fire, but disagreement on portfolio allocations between the two sides delayed this until 14 September, when both finally signed an agreement on a coalition government with 5 portfolios allocated to the RLG, 5 to the PL and 2 to independent candidates. The Provisional Government of National Union (PGNU) was eventually formed in early 1974, along with a National Political Consultative Council (NPCC) to assist in the immediate political integration of the country.

Despite this arrangement, it proved difficult to implement the agreements. The National Assembly, the RLG Parliament in Vientiane, had no left-wing representatives and was not recognised as a legitimate body by the PL. In special circumstances, the King could dissolve the National Assembly, but in such cases new elections must be held within 90 days. However, it was not possible to do this with such short notice when most of the 750,000 persons displaced by the war continued to remain in RLG areas. Repatriation was slowed down by procedural disagreements between the two sides. The PL insisted that refugees should be returned home permanently while the RLG wanted them to have the freedom to choose whether to be repatriated or to stay where they were (Brown and Zasloff, 1975: 179).

While this issue remained, members of the right-wing National Assembly took to the streets to protest against the continued presence of North Vietnamese troops in Laos when Thai and American military personnel had withdrawn according to the 1973 cease-fire agreements. This public action prompted the PGNU Prime Minister, Souvanna Phouma, to dismiss the National Assembly in July 1974, thus further eroding the political strength of the right-wing faction. At the end of 1974, the Special Forces were disbanded or merged with RLA forces. At the same time, mass student protests by left-wing political groups swept across the country against members of the old RLG.

In March 1975, armed clashes broke out between PL soldiers and Vang Pao's RLA troops guarding the cease-fire line between Vientiane and Luang Prabang, when PL units tried to advance towards Vientiane In violation of the 1973 agreements which prohibited military activities by the parties involved in the conflict. Vang Pao, however, was told to retreat by the Prime Minister who preferred to accommodate to the PL. Knowing that American military aid had been stopped and that no further retreat was possible, Vang Pao resigned his commission. On 14 May 1975, he left for Thailand where a few days previously five members of the PGNU cabinet on the RLG side had sought refuge, after their dismissal by Souvanna Phouma. They were soon joined by two other key RLA generals, Kouprasit Abhay and Thonglith Chokbengboun.

After the escape from Laos of Sisouk Na Champassak, the right-wing Defence Minister, his post was assumed by the PL Deputy Minister, General Kham Ouane Boupha. Kham Ouane gradually dissolved the mixed RLA and PL police guarding Luang Prabang and Vientiane, slowly opening the way for PL troops to enter areas under the Vientiane side. RLA soldiers were disarmed, and new administrative committees "elected" to replace the old system of village headmen, district chiefs and provincial governors. Even before the PL take-over was complete, indoctrination or "re-education" sessions were conducted for public servants of all levels and for civilians who had not traditionally been under the communists. These compulsory "seminars" and the arbitrary arrests of influential people soon caused thousands of refugees to flee to Thailand. Many refugees belonged to the business community and minority groups, but the majority consisted of RLG senior public servants, army personnel and their families.

On 2 December 1975, the People's National Congress, formed by the Pathet Lao a few months previously, decided to replace the PGNU and the NPCC with a new Council of Ministers and a People's Supreme Assembly. King Savang Vathana was forced to abdicate and the monarchy abolished. With the advent of the People's Democratic Republic of Laos, the Government now consisted of 12 ministries, one Committee of Planning, one Committee of the Nationalities, a National Bank and the Prime Minister's Office with four Ministers in charge.

To the surprise of most people, the post of Prime Minister went to Kaysone Phomvihanh who was until then unknown outside the PL central committee. He was allegedly put in power by North Vietnam because he was half-Vietnamese and was thus more trustworthy, although he has proved to be most able and charismatic in his own right. Souphanouvong was made President, a nominal position which carries little decision-making power.

Resistance and Refugees: Fearing retributions from the new regime after the PL control of Laos, many former RLA Hmong soldiers and civilians who could not flee to Thailand went into hiding with their families in inaccessible mountain areas. They were joined by others who were released or who escaped from "seminar" centres. From their jungle hide-outs, small groups of these men first ambushed PL trucks travelling between Vang Vieng and Vientiane in early 1976, but soon Included PL troops in their attacks. They repeatedly used arms and ammunitions left hidden by Vang Pao in Phu Bia or collected from their dead victims.

Although American diplomats in Laos disclaimed any involvement with these tribal dissidents, reports about their skirmishes filtered through to the outside world throughout 1976. Armed resistance was also reported in Sayaboury where refugees in Thailand were said to return to Laos and carry out their separate campaign against PL and Vietnamese soldiers (FEER, 13l2176: 32). Initial casualties on the Government side were believed to include two Soviet helicopters and crew, in addition to "serious losses" suffered by village militia and local military personnel (FEER, 10/9/76: 13).

The Government decided to send troops to the hills to crush this resistance When they proved ineffective, four regiments of NV soldiers were brought in from other parts of Laos. Many Hmong settlements were burned to the ground, sometimes accompanied by mass execution of their inhabitants. Aerial bombing was carried out along with heavy artillery lifted to the highlands by helicopters. Poisonous chemicals were alleged to have been dropped on civilians hiding in the jungles and defoliants were sprayed on their crops. Those who surrendered themselves to the authorities were taken to "resettlement villages" in the lowlands where they were selected for "seminars", imprisonment or executions, depending on the decisions of the military.

This pattern of resistance and government counter-attacks persists even today, and is one the major causes of the continuing refugee movement to Thailand. The resistance has been further fuelled by political groups formed by Lao refugees who have resettled in the West, among which was the United Front for the Liberation of Laos under Vang Pao's leadership. Border Thai intelligence officers have also played an ongoing role in this resistance by supplying small groups of refugees with arms and sending them back to Laos to gather military information, thereby putting into jeopardy the lives of villagers who come into contact with these teams. The only recourse for such villagers is to escape to Thailand with their families in order to avoid persecution by PL officials.

Official estimates put the number of Hmong dissidents killed in the military operations of 1977 at 1,300 and "thousands" captured in "heavy fighting" (Asia Week, 16/12/79: 16). On his part, Vang Pao alleged that 50,000 Hmong died from PL chemical poisoning between 1975 and 1978, while another 45,000 perished "form starvation and diseases or were shot trying to escape to Thailand'' (Hamilton Merritt, op.cit.: 37). Whatever the number of casualties, there is no doubt that the campaign against Hmong and other dissidents had significantly increased the number of people crossing to Thailand. One group of 2,500 Hmong, for instance, arrived in Nong Khai refugee camp in December 1977 (Asia Week, 10/3/78: 38). This was the biggest single escape party which was said to number more than 8,000 members when it first set out from Phu Bia, but a number of them changed their mind and return to their jungle hide-outs while many others were captured, died from exhaustion, shot by PL troops along the escape route, or drowned trying to swim across the Mekong river.

Since 1980, some of these refugees have included people who had traditionally aligned with the PL and many families which had been living in the 'new liberated zone'. From the first group of 25,000 Hmong reaching Thailand in May 1975, the number had steadily increased to 60,000 towards the end of 1979 when close to 3,000 persons crossed the Mekong a month. It is estimated that by 1990, more than 90,000 Hmong refugees have gone to live in the United States; 6,000 in France; and 3,000 in Canada, Australia, Argentina and French Guyana. Another 60,000 lowland Lao have also been resettled in the West, mostly in the United States (35,000); France (16,000); Canada (4,000), an Australia (8,600). About 3,000 had voluntarily been repatriated to Laos under UNHCR auspice, but some are known to have escaped to Thailand again.

The total number of Hmong refugees in Thai camps in March 1980 was 48,937 persons with 998 new arrivals during that month. Despite departures for resettlement in other countries, there were still 46,218 Hmong registered for support by the United Nations High Commission for Refugees in five camps in Northern Thailand in February 1981 (UNHCR Monthly Statistics, March 1980 and February 1981). About 75,000 Lao refugees were known to be in Thailand in 1987, the largest group of Indochinese refugees under UNHCR protection. Of this number, 54,095 were hill tribe people, mostly Hmong being held at Ban Vinai and Chiang Kham camps (Feith, 1988 32). At the end of 1990, there were still 22, 000 lowland Lao refugees in Ban Napho camp; 40,000 Hmong at Ban Vinai (including 10,000 unregistered new arrivals); 22,000 in Chiang Khan and another 5,000 awaiting to go to third countries in Phanat Nikhom camp.

The reasons for refugees continuing to leave Laos have remained much the same since 1975: persecution against former RLG officials, military offensives directed at resistance groups, heavy rice tax, military and labour conscription extreme economic deprivation, and arbitrary arrests of people suspected political crimes or disloyalty. Many of the right-wing politicians, army officer and public servants taken to "seminar" centres have been released, with some subsequently escaping to join their families in Thailand and the West. Other internees, including the former King and Queen and the Crown Prince, are known to have died from hard labour and the harsh conditions of the re-education camps, and about 200 still remain in detention.

Conclusion: The Pathet Lao have taken control of Laos since 1975, but refugees continue to flow to Thailand, especially the hilltribes. This is despite many deter-rents put in place by the Thai govt such as keeping refugees in closed camps with no access to resettlement in other countries in order to prevent further flows from Laos; the tightening of the definition of the term "refugee" and classifying most Lao as "economic" rather than political refugees; and forcing people back to Laos after they have crossed into Thailand. Since 1987, there has been a relaxation in the Lao govt's policy with family bus and comm enterprises being allowed to flourish, more freedom of movements in and out of the country, and more tourism and trade with Thailand. This new policy, however, has been affected by the recent political change in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union which used to be the major aid donors and ideological supporters of the Pathet Lao. During the second half of 1990, the govt decided to return to a stricter rule with many arrests of senior officials suspected of "liberal" thinking, and a tighter control of pop movements due to increased insurgency activities by resistance grps across the country. In Oct 1990, large numbers of refugees still emerged in Ban Vinai camp looking for UNHCR protection because of heavy fighting in Xieng Khouang and Vang Vieng provinces in northern Laos. So long as the country's leaders do not learn to accommodate to each other but only see armed intervention and arbitrary arrests as the solutions to their differences, Lao refugees will continue to be generated and need intl assist.

REFUGEES FROM LAOS: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND CAUSES By: Gary YUS

Support of Souvanna Phouma's govt in the face of continuing N.Vietnamese aggression did not constitute, technically speaking, a violation of the terms of the 1962 Geneva Protocol, as Radio Hanoi and Radio Pathet Lao charged. It did not involve Laos in a military alliance, and there were no United States military bases or ground troops in Laos. Supply flights to RLG outposts were flown by civilian companies under charter to Souvanna Phouma's government. United States military pilots in civilian clothes, their names deleted from Department of Defense rosters, flew forward air control missions over Laos. United States pilots killed or captured in Laos often were officially described as lost "in Southeast Asia." CIA advisers assisted the guerrilla units of General Vang Pao's Hmong army, which, along with irregular forces in the south, was supplied with rice, arms, and pay by CIA operatives based at Udon Thani in Thailand. The total number of CIA personnel involved in this effort never exceeded 225 and included some fifty case officers.

On the periphery of the plenary sessions at Geneva, Harriman and his deputy, William H. Sullivan, had arrived at an informal understanding with Soviet deputy foreign minister Georgi M. Pushkin to the effect that as long as the United States did not technically violate the Geneva Protocol the Soviet Union would not feel compelled, out of consideration of its ally in Hanoi, to respond to United States activities in Laos. The official curtain of secrecy associated with this arrangement gave rise later to statements in Congress that the United States was engaged in a "secret war" in Laos, a perspective that obscured the Ho Chi Minh government of responsibility for its support of the communist-dominated resistance movement in Laos since 1945.

Souvanna Phouma was having problems of his own because of the peculiar nature of the Cold War in Laos. In April 1964, he visited Hanoi and Beijing. Premier Zhou Enlai reiterated China's support for the 1954 and 1962 Geneva agreements and advised Souvanna Phouma to dissociate the Laos question from the Vietnam question, a difficult task. Hanoi seemed to have succeeded in its strategy of making "one battlefield" out of Indochina--Cambodia, Laos, South Vietnam--and the Ho Chi Minh Trail now extended through Laos and Cambodia.

After a new tripartite meeting on the embattled Plain of Jars, Souvanna Phouma returned to Vientiane without any result and announced his intention to resign. Two rightist generals took advantage of the situation, staged a coup attempt, and arrested Souvanna Phouma. Only concerted action by Western ambassadors in the capital secured his release. Souvanna Phouma pledged to merge the rightist and Neutralist factions.

There was further infighting among the generals. In February 1965, General Phoumi, whose business dealings had earned him many enemies on the noncommunist side, left for Thailand.

With the formal merger of their faction with the rightists, Neutralist leaders increasingly felt their lives to be in danger. Kong Le eventually took refuge in the Indonesian embassy in Vientiane, leaving Laos soon after for the safety of Paris. He was replaced as commander of Neutralist troops by General Sengsouvanh Souvannarath.

From 1965 to 1973, the civil war seesawed back and forth in northern Laos, characterized by short but often very intense engagements. Because of the large areas contested, even North Vietnamese regular divisions in Laos, such as the 316th, were used in small-unit engagements during the dry season to deny control of territory and population to the other side. Population control was particularly important, because that was where recruitment for military training and transport occurred. The Hmong, in particular, suffered. Aside from the casualties, entire villages periodically had to escape the fighting, disrupting crop growing and livestock tending.

An exception to the rule of small-scale engagements was the major North Vietnamese-Pathet Lao offensive against Vang Pao that began in mid-December 1971 and lasted until the end of April 1972. This battle involved more than twenty North Vietnamese battalions and some 10,000 Hmong irregulars and Royal Lao Army defenders. After blasting the last defensive positions on the Plain of Jars with newly introduced 130-mm guns with a thirty-kilometer range, the North Vietnamese advanced on Longtiang. They captured a number of positions on a ridge dominating the airfield before being driven off with heavy loss of life on both sides. The Hmong halted an attack of T-34 tanks against the airfield by skillfully placing land mines.

Since 1963 Souvanna Phouma had kept vacant the cabinet seats allotted to the LPF, as he had done in the case of Phoumi's seat as interior minister in his August 30, 1960, government. When the National Assembly rejected his budget in debate in September 1966, he obtained a vote in the King's Council to dissolve the assembly and hold elections for a new assembly the following year. Elections were held again on January 2, 1972; forty-one of the fifty-nine deputies elected were new. The LPF boycotted the elections. The prime minister kept up contact with Souphanouvong in his cave headquarters in Houaphan, occasionally using the ICC and Soviet and North Vietnamese ambassadors as messengers.

Powerless to stop the war and acquiescing in the diplomatic fiction that the 1962 Geneva Agreement was still in effect, Souvanna Phouma endured the revilement of Radio Pathet Lao, which called him traitor, a capitulationist, and a tool of United States aggressors. The war drained Laos's manpower resources and pushed Souvanna Phouma into agreeing to introduce Thai artillery units on the royalist side and also helped to identify him with the rightist faction. As a result of the war, a peak number of 378,800 internally displaced persons were being cared for by the RLG in October 1973. Souvanna Phouma never gave up hope of resuming negotiations when conditions became more favorable. July 1994

THE SECOND TIME AROUND A VIEW OF LAOS 25 YEARS AFTER THE FALL OF VIETNAM. By Stu Glauberman Orig Pub: Jul 09 2000

Luang Prabang, Laos - The Lao people's revolution has made its changes, but this former royal capital looks and feels much as it did on the day I was forced to leave 25 years ago.

Welcome to Luang Prabang, Spr 2000: It is Visit Laos Year, and a modest new passenger terminal, a gift from the Kingdom of Thailand, has been built at Luang Prabang Airport. Unfortunately, planes can't pull up to the terminal because there is no paved taxiway. Our Lao Aviation turboprop from Vientiane draws to a stop half a mile away, in front of an antiquated open-mouthed hangar at the end of the runway. We transfer to buses for a ride to the terminal. Goodbye to Luang Prabang, Spring 1975. In the uneasy days after the fall of Saigon, the American Embassy in Laos was jittery. After all, Vietnam was just over the mountain, and the CIA's team in the Laotian civil war was losing. Finally on May 12, the order came for all Americans to leave Luang Prabang. I was given two hours to pack and round up other teachers and international volunteers for evacuation to Vientiane. Our rendezvous point, where we stood waiting for the embassy plane, was the old hangar at the end of the runway. Twice as old, I am crossing Sisavangvong Bridge on my way back. Though government roads leading to Luang Prabang are much improved, the old bridge is still the same wooden-planked affair, barely more than one lane wide. The Khane River, close to its confluence with the Mekong, is as slow-moving in spring as ever. Lao children born into a new era of independence and self-reliance are playing in the river, a timeless reverie that knows nothing of political change. The town seems peaceful, as it did even in time of war, and poor, as it did even when Uncle Sam was dishing out millions of dollars to fight a secret war and prop up the doomed Kingdom of Laos. But Buddhists tell us that it is impossible to step in the same river twice, and, of course, the communist victory and creation of the Lao People's Democratic Republic has brought change. Close to the town center, I recognize a dilapidated three-story building that was once the Lao-American Association, where long-haired Lao kids asked me to teach them the words to Bee Gees songs. At the New Luang Prabang Restaurant opposite the building, the proprietor, who has returned to his birthplace from exile, explained that the ground floor where students once borrowed books from the USIS Library is now the People's Municipal Court where people go to pay fines. In 1975, only a few dozen USAID workers, idealistic foreigners and hippies searching for easy enlightenment, lived in Luang Prabang. Today, the town is under invasion by hordes of visitors from Europe, Australia and the U.S. who call themselves travelers but remain tethered to home by e-mail. Arriving by air, road and river, they carry with them the trademark items of the 21st Century explorer: backpacks, bellypacks, bottled water and Lonely Planet guidebooks. This jungle and mountain-ringed peninsula lies deep in the heart of Indochina, about 450 miles north of the Bangkok scene popularized by "The Beach." Travelers who flock to this resort that isn't a resort seem more interested in massages than marijuana, more into finding an Internet connection than an opium connection. For them, there are guest houses, restaurants, massage-sauna parlors and handicraft shops in every quarter of Luang Prabang. Indeed it seems that a large percentage of the shophouses in the old city have signs, all of them in English, offering services and products to travelers. In Rue Sakkarine, the shop-lined main drag, there are two places where travelers can connect and send e-mail for about 10 cents a minute. The venerable Phousi Akhane garden hotel at the foot of the Buddhist landmark called Mt. Phousi (333 steps to the top) is still in business. It has been renamed the Phousi Hotel because the word akhane, which means inn, had a colonial ring to it. The former residence of the late royalist Prime Minister Prince Souvanna Phouma is an intimate luxury hotel called the Souvannaphoum. Another elegant mansion with ties to Laotian royalty, the Villa Santi, has become a stylish 25-room hotel. I stayed at the Mekong Guest House, which wasn't far from the riverfront house where I lived. The no-frills guest house has six bedrooms that rent for between $5 and $10 a night, and two shared baths. A balcony awaits brilliant sunsets over the Mekong River as it flows through Laos toward Cambodia and Vietnam. The shutters of my ground floor room opened out upon a passing parade of bicycles, motorcycles and reasonably priced motorcycle taxis called tuktuks. The pace of movement around the town is somewhat quicker than it was, as we used to rely on bicycle taxis (samlors). The march of progress has moved onto the river as well, where slow boats ferrying vegetables are overtaken by jetboats offering rides to Pak Ou Caves. Each morning at first light, before the tuktuks and jetboats begin to roar, Buddhist monks parade silently past the guest house on bare feet. In an ancient ritual, housewives kneel gracefully in the filthy street to offer a scoop of freshly cooked rice to every monk who passes by. One day when it rained at dawn, the women held umbrellas and knelt on rubber slippers to keep their embroidered skirts clean, and still managed to offer alms to the monks. I overheard a traveler boasting about the location of our guest house: "We have monks from three monasteries pass by every morning!" It is surprising and inspiring to see so much restoration work being done on Buddhist monuments in a communist country. As the seat of the once-powerful Lan Xang, the Kingdom of a Million Elephants, Luang Prabang is the repository of 600 years of Buddhist art. The most splendid of the 20 monasteries of interest to scholars is Wat Xieng Thong, which dates back to 1520 and is the largest and most representative wat of the Luang Prabang style. Another must-see attraction is the palace, known in the past as the Golden Hall and now called simply the Luang Prabang Museum. Gone is the heavily armed military guard that used to protect this building. I was resettled in Vientiane on Dec. 2, 1975, when King Savang Vattana renounced the throne to allow the Lao people to become "their own masters." For about a year, the deposed monarch was described as an adviser to the new leaders until he was banished to the hard-scrabble interior where it is said he died in a cave and was buried under a tree. For a few hours each morning and afternoon, foreigners can enter the palace by paying 10,000 kip, which is about $1.50, or what it costs for a plate of fried noodles and a glass of thick Lao coffee with a big daub of condensed milk at the bottom. I had never been inside the palace before, but what I'd heard about it was true. It turns out to have been rather garishly decorated by postwar French architects in a modernistic Asian beaux arts motif. It is filled with a collection of treasures and baubles. A friend of mine who served in the Marine Corps during the Cold War told me he had planned a trip to Laos because he wanted to see Communism in action. Unfortunately for Fred, visitors don't see any signs of the Evil Empire in Luang Prabang. The pace and pulse of the town is much the same as it was under the Kingdom of Laos. One visible difference is that there are very few beggars in a town once overrun by them, and no prostitutes. Few police officers and armed soldiers are seen on duty where there once were many.-I was asked to leave in March 1976, a few months into the new regime. Thinking back, it seems ironic that the people of Luang Prabang were a lot less worldly when they lived in a freewheeling society. Now under a socialist regime that is outwardly austere and inward-looking -- there are no movie theaters -- the people are tuned in to the outside world by TV, videos, the Internet and an endless stream of travelers. Visitors to Luang Prabang will find European-style bakeries, an Indian restaurant, and dozens of cafes and restaurants serving Lao food, a cousin to Thai and Vietnamese cuisine. Some restaurants, including the Khaem Khane Garden Restaurant overlooking the Khane River, cater to tourists. Others like the New Khaem Kong, on the banks of the Mekong, are simply extensions of a Lao home, where family members cook and serve while the children watch TV or do homework. The street market between the Post Office and the Mekong River is as rudimentary and unhygienic as any in Asia, and the covered Dara Market, which specializes in housewares, dry goods and souvenirs, is essentially unchanged, except for signs that explicitly outline tuktuk fares and sternly warn against blackmarket money-changing. Throughout the town, vendors sit behind wooden tables piled high with French bread baguettes. But don't expect to find delicious buttery croissants in this former French protectorate where French has been forgotten. Life is sweet in Luang Prabang, but not that sweet. GETTING THERE Thai Airways and Lao Aviation fly from Bangkok to Wattay Airport in the Lao capital of Vientiane. From there, Lao Aviation turboprops serve Luang Prabang
several times a day. There is one weekly non-stop from Luang Prabang back to Bangkok on Lao, which also has a weekly non-stop flight to Luang Prabang from the northern Thai city of Chiang Mai (with two non-stop returns). The U.S. State Department has expressed "serious concerns" about the safety of Lao Aviation. By road, there is express coach service daily from Vientiane via Vang Vieng. The U.S. State Department also warns against travel by road in rural areas of Laos. Check locally for current security information. VISAS Required. Americans can purchase 15-day visas upon arrival for $30. Bring two photos and proof of return or ongoing transportation. INFORMATION Embassy of the Lao People's Democratic Republic, 2222 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008; 202-332-6416; fax 202-332-4923; www.laoembassy.com.

INTERESTING READING "Stalking the Elephant Kings: In Search of Laos" by Christopher Kremmer

CHERE CHANCE INTRODUCED ME TO LAOS IN 1965, THE SUMMER I HITCH HIKED alone through Asia wondering if President Lyndon Johnson would soon be sending me back--in a uniform. A smart, high-spirited California college girl, Chere was off to visit her parents in Vientiane when we met on a flight to Tokyo. "Come visit," she urged. "Laos is like nowhere else."

Two months later, after hitching to Nong Khai on Thailand's northern border, ferrying across the muddy Mekong and scrambling up the riverbank to the Laotian customs post, whose single officer was sound asleep, I arrived at the Chance home in an American compound outside the dusty capital. Chere's father said he worked for usaid, the Agency for International Development. The next day, however, he called it Association for Industrial Development. At age 20, I didn't know which was correct--and I wondered why he didn't either.

Chere knew some Air America pilots, who took us on a flight in an ancient, bullet-pocked DC-3 to drop sacks of rice into isolated villages of Hmong tribesmen and then home for dinner. While we ate, a land mine blew over a bus 100 m away, scattering bloody victims. Certain that the mine had been meant for them, the pilots blanched, made frantic phone calls and began to drink--and talk. Air America and many USAID workers in Laos, they explained, actually worked for a U.S. agency with initials no one mistook: CIA. Chere sat silently, but her father, it suddenly seemed clear, was one of them.

By late 1967 Johnson had sent 475,000 troops to Vietnam, and me, after a stint in language school, to Thailand as a Lao interpreter for the U.S. Army. My group monitored radio communications throughout Southeast Asia. By then I knew that U.S. and communist Pathet Lao forces were all over Laos, though the mountainous and remote kingdom had officially been designated a troop-free zone since the Geneva neutrality accords of 1962.

One of my jobs was to keep track of the deep-cover military "advisers" Air America was dropping into Laos to train royalist forces and track weapons and matariel moving down the Ho Chi Minh Trail to Vietnam. Another was to watch over the supersecret communications and radar installation atop Phu Pha Thi, a 2,000-m-high mountain in northeast Laos that U.S. Air Force bombers used for precise guidance to targets in North Vietnam. Our worst day came in March 1968, when North Vietnamese forces overran the site and its 18-man staff. That debacle, only six weeks after Hanoi's Tet offensive, marked the start of an all-out intensification of fighting throughout the region.

While the war in Vietnam and Cambodia has been well documented, almost no details have emerged about this secret war in Laos. There, spies, cowboys, primitive tribesmen running guns and opium, communist guerrillas and troops fought for a decade at a cost of many lives and billions of dollars-all without U.S. congressional assent. Finally providing the missing details, is Back Fire: The CIA's Secret War in Laos and Its Link to the War in Vietnam, by Roger Warner, just published in the U.S. A free-lance magazine journalist who began following the story in 1980, Warner has interviewed many of the major U.S. and Laotian figures, gained access to classified records and produced a serious anecdotal study. He details how a once tiny clandestine operation ran amuck and ended dismally, not least for thousands of Hmong dispersed to the U.S. and to refugee camps in Thailand.

Warner's timing is good. A year after the new Friendship Bridge joined Thailand and Laos near where I once scrambled up the riverbank, Laos is opening its doors, eager to be a player, not someone else's plaything. Laos is still like nowhere else, but it's finally possible to begin understanding why.

VIEW FROM WASHINGTON, UNLOCKING A SECRET WAR TIME Mag, Oct 9 1995 Vol 146, No. 15. CHRISTOPHER OGDEN Copyright 1995 Time Inc. All Rights Reserved.


\2 Laos culture and ethnic makeup (Tribes)

The people, Ethnic and linguistic characteristics The peoples of Laos are divided by language, culture, and location. Lao officials distinguish four basic ethnolinguistic groups: the Lao-Lum, or valley Lao; the Lao-Tai, or tribal Tai; the Lao-Theung, better known as the Mon-Khmer; and the Lao-Soung, or Hmong and Man.

Mountain people sometimes are called Kha ("Slaves"), a pejorative term. The Lao-Lum live in the lowlands, on the banks of the Mekong and its tributaries, and in the cities. They speak Laotian Tai, which is closer to the language spoken by the Thai of Thailand than it is to the language of the local Tai-speaking tribes.

The Lao-Tai include such local groups as the Black Tai (Tai Dam) and Red Tai (Tai Deng), both names referring to the dress of the women; the Tai Neua, or Tai of the north; the Tai Phuan of Xiangkhoang province; and the Phu Tai. The Lao-Tai live throughout the country, chiefly in upland areas, and their various dialects are mutually intelligible.

The Lao-Theung (Mon-Khmer) include many groups of people scattered throughout Laos, northeastern Myanmar, northern Thailand, and southern China. They are thought to be descendants of the earliest peoples to inhabit the region. These people do not form a single coherent group but rather include between 25 and 30 distinct groups, some of which are closely related while others are only tenuously identified as being part of this linguistic group.

The Lao-Soung, which include the Hmong (formerly called the Meo, or Miao) and the Man (Yao), are believed to have been coming from southern China since the late 18th century. They are divided into subgroups, and neither constitutes a large proportion of the population of Laos.

Other distinct linguistic groups are few in number. Speakers of Tibeto-Burman dialects, who also came from southern China, live in the north and northwest. Chinese and Vietnamese live primarily in the urban areas. Initially, French was the language of the Lao elite and of the cities, but by the 1970s English had begun to displace it. Under the leadership of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, Vietnamese has become the third language of the elite.

Prior to the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR) in 1975, it was accurate to say that the Lao-Lum peoples had a distinct pattern of culture and dress. They also had a well-defined social structure, differentiating between royalty and commoners. The members of the elite included only a few outsiders who were not descendants of nobility. Most of the elite lived in the cities, drawing their incomes from rural land rents or from urban occupations. After 1975 a new elite emerged representing the victorious leftist forces. Many of this group, however, were of aristocratic origin.

Traditionally, Lao-Tai society had a stratified social structure and a political hierarchy. The people were organized into groups larger than villages called muong, each of which was ruled by a hereditary ruler called the chao muong. Within this broad grouping, however, there were ethnic variations. Among the Black Tai, the nobility consisted of two descent groups, the Lo and the Cam, who provided the rulers of the muong. The religious leaders came from two other descent groups, the Luong and the Ka. The Black Tai tribal organization had three levels: the village; the commune, which was composed of a number of villages; and the overall muong. The latter two were ruled by nobles, while the village headman was selected from among the commoners by the heads of households. The Red Tai had a similar social structure, with the addition of a council of five to aid the chao muong. The nobility owned the land and had the right of service from the commoners.

The Mon-Khmer had no political or social structure beyond the village. They were led by a village headman, who was their link to the central government; but his role in the village was not clear. Among the Lao-Soung, the Hmong maintained the tradition of a king and subchiefs and a large-scale organization, although in practice this usually was limited to the village. The village consisted of several extended families. In some villages, all the heads of households were members of a single clan, and the head of the clan was the headman of the village. Where several clans resided together in a large village there were several headmen, one being the nominal head and the link to the government. The headman had real authority in the village and was aided by a council. The Hmong extended their organization beyond the village for military purposes.

The predominant religion of Laos is Theravada Buddhism, which is professed by most Lao and by a small number of other ethnic groups.

Most of the rest of the people are animists, or spirit worshipers, especially in the more isolated upland areas. Many see no contradiction in being both, since Buddhism shows the way to enlightenment, while spirit worship helps a person to cope with daily and local problems. Among the hill peoples, especially those who have migrated from southern China, are found groups that mix Confucian ideas with Buddhism and animism. One subgroup of the Mon-Khmer, the Lamet, practices ancestor worship, and the Hmong are both spirit and ancestor worshipers. Roman Catholic and Protestant missionaries were present in the country before 1975, but only a tiny proportion of the population is Christian. The Vietnamese, who live both in the cities and in the northeastern rural areas, practice a mixture of Mahayana Buddhism and Confucianism.

Demographic trends Laos is an underpopulated country. It has the lowest population density of any Southeast Asian nation, and its population is also one the most youthful. A high birthrate is offset by one of the highest infant-mortality rates in the region. About half the people are concentrated in the lowlands, and only about one-fifth are urban dwellers. The Lao-Lum are the largest ethnic group. There has been a considerable out-migration of people from Laos since the mid-1970s, including most of the country's educated and professional elite.

HEALTH This section intends to give some advice on health issues in South East Asia. It does not cover all possibilities and in case of problems you certainly still should visit a qualified medical doctor. This is especially true for vaccinations.

Depending on the country you are travelling, medical facilities may not be widely available. This is true especially for Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar. China and Vietnam does have a wide variety of medicines, but you may not be familiar with them. In case of serious troubles consider leaving the country and going to a place with good facilites (e.g. Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, etc.)

Chinese people are very aware of health problems. The Chinese medicine is world famous and obtainable even in the smallest villages and also many of the surrounding countries (e.g. Vietnam). However, Western medicine is not very widely available.

Doctors and hospitals normally expect immediate cash payment. If you regularly need some medicine, bring enough of it with you since chances are that you will not get the same or a replacement for it. It is also recommended to bring one or two clean needles in case of an emergency.

Be carful not to drink water directly from the tap. Although it is not a problem anymore in big cities like Shanghai, depending on your resistance it is better to be safe than sorry. Especially in China, even the smallest guest houses in the remotest villages there are thermos bottles with boiled water. It is used to drink tea. However, if you follow the rule of "cook it , boil it, peel it, or forget it", you can eat and drink from any restaurant or street stall and ridiculous things (at least for people with an average stomach) like bringing your own chopsticks is really not necessary.

AIDS AIDS is a serious threat in many countries. According to recent figures by UNAIDS, the United Nations program, about half of Cambodia's prostitutes are HIV positive. The total figure of the population with the disease is estimated at 120'000, with the most explosive growth in Asia. Aids iis also increasing rapidly in other countries.

Malaria The four essential steps when dealing with malaria are: Awareness: know about the risk of malaria. Bites by mosquitoes: prevent or avoid. Compliance with appropriate chemoprophylaxis. Diagnose breakthrough malaria swiftly and obtain treatment promptly.

Malaria (from Italian 'mala aira', bad air) is a life-threatening disease and a major health risk for travelers visiting tropical countries. It occurs when small parasites are passed from one person to another by the bites of certain mosquitoes (Anopheles). The parasites use red blood cells to breed and finally cause their decay. This decay causes fever and eventually a lack of oxygen which can, in case of a malaria cerebral, cause brain damage. Depending on the type of malaria these fever shocks appear every three (malaria tertiana) or four (malaria quartana) days. Death rate of malaria can be up to 2%.

There have been many discussions on how to best deal with it and even the doctors have not yet agreed on a single opinion.

Probably the best paper describing malaria and its prevention and cure is from the PHLS Malaria Reference Laboratory of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and can be found at: http://www.phls.co.uk/publications/CDRreview/cdrr1097.pdf

Dr. Arlene Goldman published an excellent guide to the various drugs used in malaria treatment and lists region with malaria resistance. The URL is http://www.publinet.it/pol/malaria.htm

Bilharzia

The parasitic infection bilharzia (schistosomiasis) is caught by contact with river water. You do not have to drink the water or swim in the river, just getting wet may be enough. The microscopic parasites in the water burrow into your skin and cause a damage to the liver and other organs. It is a chronic debilitation disease. The most dangerous region is in south Laos (south of Pakse) and in Cambodia.

LITERATURE Since this secion is generated automatically, the list is not processed into FAQ form. To get a good overview of literature (guidebooks, novels, language, etc) please visit the web stie at http://www.pmgeiser.ch/laos

You can order most books online. Ordering from my web site helps keeping this guide free and available to everybody.

** CONTRIBUTORS Anna Kettle Anna@altern8.demon.co.uk Gil Carroll jrsap@comnet2.ksc.net.th Sebastian Hoffmann  sebhoff@es.unizh.ch Dr. Stephen Attwood stephen.attwood@one024.demon.co.uk Dr. Steve Jones  sj203@hermes.cam.ac.uk
 Last updated: Mon Jun 12 00:00:53 2000

** Ethnologue: Areas: Laos 4,583,000 (1995).2,769,000 or 71% speakers of Daic languages, 1,100,000 or 24.1% Austro-Asiatic languages, 175,000 or 4% Miao-Yao languages, 42,500 or 1% Tibeto-Burman languages (1991 J. Matisoff). Lao People's Democratic Republic, Sathanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao. Literacy rate 43% to 45%. Also includes Central Khmer 10,400 (1984), Vietnamese 76,000, Chinese 25,000 (1984 MARC). Information mainly from H. Purnell OMF 1973, Wurm and Hattori 1981. Data accuracy estimate: B, C. Buddhist, traditional religion, secular, Christian, Muslim. Blind population 10,000 (1982 WCE). The number of languages listed for Laos is 92. AKHA (KAW, EKAW, KO, AKA, IKAW, AK'A, AHKA, KHAKO, KHA KO, KHAO KHA KO, IKOR, AINI, YANI) [AKA] 6,400 in Laos (1993 Johnstone); 25,000 in Thailand (1986); 130,000 in China (1990); 200,000 in Myanmar (1991 UBS); 360,000 or more in all countries. Extreme northern and northwest Laos. Also in Viet Nam. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Southern, Akha, Hani, Ha-Ya. Typology: SOV. Traditional religion, Christian. NT 1968-1987. Bible portions 1939-1991. ALAK 1 (HRLAK 1) [ALK] 3,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Southern Laos, mainly in Saravane Province. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, Central Bahnaric. Closest to Bahnar, Tampuan, Lamam. Distinct from Alak 2, which is East Katuic. ALAK 2 (HRLAK 2) [ALQ] Southern Laos, near Ngeq. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Ngeq-Nkriang. Close to Ngeq, but a distinct language. Distinct from Alak 1, which is Bahnaric. Survey needed. AREM [AEM] 1,000 in all countries (1981 Wurm and Hattori). West central, both sides of the Viet Nam-Laos border, west of Phuc Trach. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Chut. May and Ruc are closely related. Survey needed. BIT (KHABIT, KHBIT, PHSING, PHSIN) [BGK] 1,530 in Laos (1985 F. Proschan); 500 in China (1990 J-O Svantesson); 2,000 in all countries. Near the northern border with China, southeast of Nam Tha and south of Boun Neua; 2 areas. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Khao. Not Khmuic but Palaungic (J-O Svantesson 1990). Related to Khao in Viet Nam. Survey needed. BO [BGL] 2,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Central Laos inland from the bend of the Mekong, Nhang River, around Nape and Lak Sao. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Muong. Survey needed. BRAO (BRAOU, BRAU, PROUE, BROU, LOVE, LAVE, LAVEH) [BRB] 18,000 in all countries in Laos and Cambodia (1984); 5,000 in Cambodia (1988 govt. figure); over 90 in USA (1990); 5 in France. Stung Treng and Ratanakiri provinces, Laos-Cambodian border. Also in Viet Nam, Providence, RI; Massachusetts; Washington, D.C.; Charlotte, N.C.; Dallas, Texas; Minneapolis, Minnesota; Stockton, California; Portland, Oregon; USA. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Brao-Kravet. Closely related to Krung 2 and Kravet in Cambodia. Work in progress. BRU, EASTERN (GALLER, BROU, VANKIEU) [BRU] 64,000 in Laos (1993 Johnstone); 50,000 in Viet Nam (1991); 114,000 in all countries. Savannehkhet Province: Tchepone area east of Vietnamese border. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, West Katuic, So-Bru. It is partially intelligible with Western Bru of Thailand. 15% to 25% literate. NT 1981. Bible portions 1868. CON [CNO] 1,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Northwestern corner, southwest of Vieng Pou Kha. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Lametic. Survey needed. HALANG (KOYONG) [HAL] 2,000 to 4,000 in Laos; 10,000 in Viet Nam; 12,000 in all countries (1973 SIL). Attopeu Province, southern Laos. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Jeh-Halang. Closely related to Jeh. 25% to 50% literate. Traditional religion. Bible portions 1970-1972. HALANG DOAN (HALANG DUAN, DUAN, DOAN) [HLD] 1,000 in Laos (1962 Lafont); 2,000 in all countries (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Attopeu Province, Kasseng Plateau and the left banks of the Se Kamane and Dak Robay Rivers. Also in Viet Nam. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Duan. May be intelligible with Takua, Kayong, Halang Daksut, Rengao. Salang way be an alternate name. Survey needed. HANI (HANHI, HAW) [HNI] 30,000 in Laos (1994); 500,000 in China, 180,000 in Myanmar (1994); 37,000 in Viet Nam (1993); 747,000 in all countries. Scattered along the Yunnan border. None in Thailand. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Southern, Akha, Hani, Ha-Ya. An official nationality in China. Polytheist, ancestor worship. HMONG DAW (WHITE MEO, WHITE MIAO, MEO KAO, WHITE LUM, BAI MIAO) [MWW] 160,000 or more in all countries; 60,000 in China (1987); 25,000 to 30,000 in Thailand (1984 OMF); 70,000 in USA (1987 UBS); 10,000 in France. 250,000 all Hmong in Laos. Also in Viet Nam. Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian. Dialects: HMONG GU MBA (HMONG QUA MBA, STRIPED HMONG), MONG LENG. Also spoken by the Hmong Qua Mba people, no significant dialect difference. Largely intelligible with Hmong Njua. Mong Leng is intelligible with Hmong Daw, but sociolinguistic factors require separate literature. NT 1975-1984. Bible portions 1922-1984. HMONG NJUA (BLUE MEO, BLUE MIAO, TAK MEO, HMONG NJWA, HMONG LENG, MIAO, MEO) [BLU] 100,000 in Laos (1975 Katzner); 1,000,000 in China (1987); 33,000 in Thailand; 10,000 in Myanmar (1987); 70,000 in USA including Hawaii (1986 UBS); 2,000 possibly in France; 1,500 in French Guiana; 1,149,000 or more in all countries. Also in southwestern Viet Nam, Australia. Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian. This dialect is closer to Hmong Daw in Laos than the two varieties in Thailand. NT 1975-1983. Bible portions 1955-1959. IR (IN, YIR) [IRR] 10,000 together with Ong (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Saravane Province, east of Saravane. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Ta-Oy-Tong. Closest to Ong. Survey needed. IU MIEN (MIEN, MAN, YAO, MYEN, HIGHLAND YAO) [IUM] 60,000 or fewer in Laos (1995 H. Purnell); 892,000 in all countries. Also in Thailand, China, Viet Nam, Myanmar, France, USA, Taiwan, Canada. Hmong-Mien, Mienic, Mian-Jin. The language is the same as Thailand and Viet Nam Mien. Not all ethnic Yao speak the language. Almost all refugees in the West have come from Laos, so the number of speakers in Laos may be smaller. Polytheist, ancestor worship. NT 1975-1991. Bible portions 1932-1968. JEH (DIE, YEH, GIE) [JEH] (10,000 in Viet Nam; 1973). Basin of Poko, Se Kamane and Dak Main rivers in southern Laos. Also in Viet Nam. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Jeh-Halang. Dialects: JEH BRI LA, JEH MANG RAM. The language is closely related to Halang. 15% to 25% literate. Bible portions 1967-1978. JENG (CHENG) [JEG] 5,400 (1981); 20,000 together with Oy, Sapuan, Sok (1981 Wurm and Hattori). North of Attopeu. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Oi-The. Related to Oy, Sapuan, Sok. Survey needed. KADO (KADU, KATU, ASAK, SAK, GADU, THET) [KDV] (128,500 in Myanmar, 1983; 100,000 in China, 1990). Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Luish. Dialects: KADU, GANAAN (GANAN), ANDRO, SENGMAI, CHAKPA, PHAYENG. Kado and Ganaan may be separate languages. Distinct from Katu, a Mon-Khmer language of Viet Nam and Laos. Bible portions 1939. Survey needed. KADUO (GAZHUO) [KTP] 5,000 in Laos (1981 Wurm and Hattori); 4,000 to 6,200 in China (1994); 9,000 to 11,200 in all countries. North central on the China border, north of Mong Ou Tay. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Northern, Unclassified. Distinct from Kado and Katu. Related to Sani, Lisu. Survey needed. KANG [KYP] (34,065 in China; 1993). Daic, Tai, Unclassified. Survey needed. KANTU (HIGH KATU) [KTT] 50,000 (1991 J. Matisoff); 80,000 together with Katu (1981 Wurm and Hattori). East central near Viet Nam border, east of Pa Leng. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Katu-Thap. Dialects: KANTU TANGPRIL-TALUY, KANTU PILU'. Closely related to Katu, but distinct. 5% to 15% literate. Survey needed. KASSENG (KOSENG, KASENG, KRASENG) [KGC] 6,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Southern Laos near Viet Nam border, Boloven Plateau area north of Attopeu, and between the Jeh, Alak, Laven, and Tareng peoples. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Kaseng. Also classified as West Bahnaric. Survey needed. KATAANG (KATANG) [KGD] 10,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Southern Laos near the Ta'oih and Bru peoples, around Muong Nong. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Kataang. Not intelligible with Ta'oih. 25% to 50% literate. Survey needed. KATU (ATTOUAT, TEU, KAO, KHAT, THAP, TA RIVER, CAO, KADO, VAN KIEU) [KTV] 30,000 in all countries (1989 SIL); 80,000 together with Kantu (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Upper Se Kong River, high basin of Song Boung River along watershed
between Laos and Viet Nam. Also in Viet Nam. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Katu-Thap. NT 1978. Bible portions 1969. KHA TONG LUANG (PHI TONG LUANG, YELLOW LEAF) [KHQ] 200 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Central, on the Viet Nam border, Mu Gia Pass, north of B. Xang. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Muong. May be related to Thavung. Different from Mlabri, a Khmuic group also called 'Yellow Leaf'. Survey needed. KHLOR (KLOR, LOR) [LLO] 6,000; 10,000 together with Ngeh (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Saravane Province, south of Ir and Ong. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Ngeq-Nkriang. Closest to Ngeq. Survey needed. KHMU (KMHMU, KHMU', KHAMU, KAMU, KAMMU, KHAMUK, KAMHMU, KHOMU, MOU, POUTENG, PU THENH, TENH, THENG, LAO TERNG) [KJG] 389,694 in Laos (1985 F. Proschan); 15,000 to 40,000 in Thailand; 500 possibly in France; 1,600 in China (1984); over 2,000 in USA; 42,853 in Viet Nam (1989 F. Proschan); 500,000 in all countries (1996 F. Proschan). Scattered through northern Laos. Also in Myanmar, USA: Santa Ana, Ft. Worth, Oklahoma City. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Khmu'. Dialects: YUAN, KHROONG (KRONG), LUANG PRABANG, SAYABURY, LYY, ROK, U, HAT. Typology: SVO. Bible portions 1918. Work in progress. KHUA [XHU] 5,000 in all countries (1981 Wurm and Hattori). East central; northwest of Boualapha. Also in Viet Nam. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, West Katuic, So-Bru. Related to Bru, Mangkong, Leun. Distinct from Cua. Survey needed. KHUEN (KWEEN, KHWEEN, KHOUEN) [KHF] (1,000 in China; 1993). Near the Lamet people. Also in USA (Richmond, California and Seattle, Washington). Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Khmu'. Work in progress. KIM MUN (MUN, LAN TIN, LOWLAND YAO, MAN LAN-TIEN, LANTEN, JIM MUN) [MJI] 3,600 in Laos, 770 families (1995); 66,000 in China (1993); 200,000 in all countries. Northwestern Laos, Nam Tha District and Province; Huay Sai Province; Nam Moh District, Udom Sai Province; Long District, Luang Nam Tha Province. Also in Viet Nam. Hmong-Mien, Mienic, Mian-Jin. A few know Lahu. KIORR (SAAMTAAV, CON, COL) [XKO] 2,359 in Laos (1985 F. Proschan). Also in Myanmar. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Angkuic. Survey needed. KUAN [UAN] Khammouan Province. Daic, Tai, Unclassified. Some classification problems, possibly because of migration. Survey needed. KUY (SUAI, SOAI, SOUEI, SUOI, SUEI, KUOY, KUI, KHAMEN-BORAN, OLD KHMER, CUOI) [KDT] 64,000 in Laos (1993 Johnstone); 234,000 in Thailand (1993); 16,000 in Cambodia (1993); 314,000 in all countries, or 650,000 total (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Saravane, Sedone provinces. A large group on both sides of the Mekong in southern Laos, Cambodia. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, West Katuic, Kuy-Suei. Dialects: DAMREY, ANLOUR, O, KRAOL, ANTRA, NA NHYANG. 80% monolingual. NT 1978-1992. Bible portions 1965. LAHU (MUSSUH, MUHSO, MUSSO) [LAH] 2,000 to 2,500 in Laos (1973 Matisoff); 411,476 in China; 125,000 in Myanmar (1993); 28,000 in Thailand (1993); 580,000 in all countries (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Nam Tha. Also in Viet Nam. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Southern, Akha, Lahu. Dialects: NA (BLACK LAHU, MUSSER DAM, NORTHERN LAHU, LOHEIRN), NYI (RED LAHU, SOUTHERN LAHU, MUSSEH DAENG, LUHISHI, LUHUSHI), SHEHLEH. Black Lahu, Red Lahu, and Shehleh dialects are close. Lahu Shi (Yellow Lahu, Kutsung) is distinct. Bible 1989. NT 1932-1962. Bible portions 1924-1962. LAMET (LEMET, KHA LAMET, KHAMET, KHAMED, RMEET) [LBN] 14,355 in Laos (1985 F. Proschan); 100 in Thailand; (1981 Wurm and Hattori); 6 to 10 families in USA (1986 E. Preisig); 14,500 in all countries. Northwestern Laos, in the midst of the Khmu, Namthat area. Also in Thailand and California and Washington D.C. USA. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Lametic. Dialects: UPPER LAMET, LOWER LAMET. Called 'Lamet' in Laos and 'Khamet' in Thailand. 25% to 50% literate. Work in progress. LAO (LAOTIAN TAI, LAOTIAN, PHOU LAO, EASTERN THAI, LUM LAO, LAO WIANG, LAO KAO, RONG KONG, TAI LAO, LAO-TAI, LO, LAO-LUM, LAO-NOI) [NOL] 3,000,000 in Laos (1991 UBS); 171,577 in USA (1990 census); 17,000 Lao (1993); 3,188,000 in all countries. 4,000,000 in Laos including second language users (1991 WA). Mekong River Valley from Luang Prabang south to the Cambodian border. The Lao Kao went to Thailand and are in Nan, Loei, Saraburi, and elsewhere; the Lao-Khrang are in the Nakhonsawan and Nakhon Pathom area. Also in Cambodia and Canada. May also be in Viet Nam. Daic, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Lao-Phutai. Dialects: LUANG PRABANG, VIENTIANE (WIANG JAN), SAVANNAKHET (SUWANNAKHET), PAKSE, LAO-KAO, LAO-KHRANG. 100% monolingual. Dialect continuum with Northeastern Tai of Thailand. 50% to 75% literate. National language. Typology: SOV. Buddhist, traditional religion. Bible 1932, in press (1996). NT 1926-1973. Bible portions 1906-1967. LAVEN (LOVEN, BOLOVEN, LAWEENJRU, JARU) [LBO] 32,000 (1993 Johnstone). Southwestern Laos, Boloven Plateau, near the Alak. Also in Stockton, California, USA. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Laven. Different from Brao. LEUN (LEUNG, LEU, MUONG LEUNG, LUUN, RUUL) [LLE] Saravane Province, Laos. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, West Katuic, So-Bru. Survey needed. L (LUE, LU, PAI-I, SHUI-PAI-I) [KHB] 20,000 in Laos (1993 Johnstone); 78,000 in Thailand (1993); 3,000 in Viet Nam (1959); 250,000 to 770,000 in China (1990); 200,000 in Myanmar (1981 SIL); 551,000 to 1,070,000 in all countries. Western Phong Saly, north and west Haut Mekong, Luang Prabang, and along Nam Tha and Nam Beng. Daic, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Northwest. An official nationality in Viet Nam. Traditional religion, Buddhist. NT 1933, out of print. Bible portions 1921-1932. Work in progress. MAL (KHATIN, T'IN, HTIN, THIN, TIN, T'IN) [MLF] 13,977 in Laos (1985 F. Proschan); 3,000 to 4,000 in Thailand (1982); 17,000 to 18,000 in all countries. 40,000 in the Mal-Phrai language group including Thailand. Also in northern California, USA (Thin). Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Mal-Phrai. Not intelligible with Lua, Phai, or Pray 3. 'Mal' and 'Madl' are self names. 'T'in' is an ethnic name used in Thailand. NT 1994. Bible portions 1983. MANGKONG (MANG-KOONG, MAKONG, SO MAKON, MANKOONG, MANG CONG) [XMK] 10,000 in all countries (1991). East central; northeast of Kouang to Viet Nam border, and into Viet Nam. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, West Katuic, So-Bru. Related to Bru, Khua, Leun. 15% to 25% literate. Survey needed. MAY [MVZ] 1,500 in all countries (1981 Wurm and Hattori). West central, both sides of the Viet Nam-Laos border, east of Phuc Trach, southeast of Arem. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Chut. Arem and Ruc are closely related. Survey needed. MLABRI (MLA, MLA BRI, MABRI, MRABRI, YUMBRI, MA KU, YELLOW LEAF) [MRA] 24 in Laos (1985 F. Proschan); 300 in all countries (1982 E. R. Long NTM). Laos border area. Also in Thailand. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mlabri. Nomadic. Mlabri are different from Kha Tong Luang (Phi Tong Luang, Yellow Leaf), which are Western Viet-Muong (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Forest. Work in progress. NGEQ (NGEH, NGE', KRIANG, NKRIANG) [NGT] 4,000; 10,000 together with Khlor (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Southern Laos, in the Muong Phine-Bung Sai area. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Ngeq-Nkriang. 70% monolingual. "Kha Koh" means '(derogatory) mountain people'. 'Nkriang' is their name for themselves. Closest to Khlor. Related to Alak 2. 15% to 25% literate. Work in progress. NGUN [NUO] 2,000 in all countries (1981 Wurm and Hattori). West central, south of Bai Dinh. Also in Viet Nam. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Muong. Closest to Muong. Survey needed. NUNG (NONG) [NUT] A few in Laos; 100,000 possibly in China; 700,000 in Viet Nam (1992 J.A. Edmondson); 1,500,000 in all countries (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Also in USA, Canada, and Australia. Daic, Tai, Central. Different from Chinese Nung (Cantonese in Viet Nam) and Tibeto-Burman Nung. An official ethnic community in Viet Nam. Bible portions 1971-1975. Work in progress. NYAHEUN (NHA HEUN, NYAH HEUNY, HOEN, NIA HOEN, HUN, HIN, NIAHON, NYAHN) [NEV] 4,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Eastern part of Boloven Plateau near Saravane and Paksong. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Nyaheun. 15% to 25% literate. O'DU (O DU, IDUH, 'IDUH, "TAY HAT", HAT, HAAT) [TYH] 194 in Laos (1989 F. Proschan 1996); 200 in Viet Nam (1985 F. Proschan 1996); 400 in both countries. Northern. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Khmu'. An official ethnic community in Viet Nam. Speakers call themselves 'O Du'. ONG
[OOG] (10,000 together with Ir; 1981 Wurm and Hattori). Saravane Province, north of Saravane. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Ta-Oy-Tong. Closest to Ir. Survey needed. OY (HUEI, OI) [OYB] 10,600 (1981); 20,000 together with Sok, Sapuan, Jeng (1981 Wurm and Hattori). South, foot of Boloven Plateau and Pakse. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Oi-The. Dialects: RIYAO, TAMAL EUY, INN TEA, KRANYEU. Related to Jeng, Sapuan, Sok, The. 80% monolingual. Traditional religion. Survey needed. PACOH (BO RIVER VAN KIEU, POKOH) [PAC] 15,000 in all countries (SIL 1973). Also in Viet Nam. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Pacoh-Phuong. Dialect: PAHI. Related to Phuong. 'Koh' in 'Pacoh' means 'mountain'. 15% to 25% literate. Bible portions 1965-1969. PAKATAN (MA LENG) [PKT] 500 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Central, Theun River, around B. Si Nho. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Chut. Survey needed. PHAI (THUNG CHAN PRAY, PHAY, KHA PHAY, PRAY 1, PRAI) [PRT] (31,000 in Thailand; 1993 Johnstone). West of B. Na Sing. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Mal-Phrai. Distinct from Lua, Mal, and Pray 3. Work in progress. PHANA' (PANA', BANA') [PHN] 5,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). One village in north Laos. Larger number near Yunnan border. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Southern, Akha. Adults speak some Lahu. Survey needed. PHON SUNG (PHON SOUNG, AHO) [PHS] 500 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Central, around and east of B. Song Khone, Theun River, sou


\3 VIENTIENE AND ITS SUBURBS

Vientiane is the present-day capital city of Lao. It is located on a curve of the Mekong River sharing the border with Thailand. Vientiane is interesting and attractive with its old town along the Mekong River, ancient temples and tree linear boulevards that used to be a fortified wall against foreign invasions. Vientiane is sophisticated with galleries, theatres, nightclubs, shopping thats so good, it is a major attraction of visitors from all over the world. Vientiane is a small city but offers its visitors a great variety of restaurant with cuisine ranging from genuine Lao specialties to Chinese, Vietnamese, Indian, Thai and European specialties.

ARCH MONUMENT "PRATUXAI" Situated in the center of Vientiane prefecture, this Victory Gate, also known as Anousavali was constructed in 1958, its architecture was inspired from the Arcade Triumph in Paris and incorporates the typical Lao motifs including Kinnari, the Mythical bird-woman. Energetic visitors can climb to the top of the monument and enjoy a Panoramic view of the city.

THAT LUANG That Luang Shrine (great Sacred Stupa) is the most important national monument in Vientiane, with golden stupa believed to contain a relic of Lord Buddha. That Luang was constructed to gather Lao people all over the country and became the cultural center since 1566. That Luang Festival is organized yearly on the full moon of November and it is celebrated for 7 days and nights with traditional performances.

WAT PRAKEO WAT Prakeo was built in 1566 by king Setthathirat to house the Emerald Buddha for his personal place of worship. Unlike other temples (or Wat), there had never been any monks residing in this temple of Wat Prakeo. From the terrace of Ho Prakeo, you can enjoy a view overlooking the Presidents palace (former Royal Palace) and gardens.

MORNING MARKET Morning Market consists of three main buildings where each has two floors. This shopping market has become a lively commercial center where a variety of goods is exhibited such as garments, souvenirs, jewelry, electronic equipment and products from over the world.

NATIONAL ETHNIC Cultural Park Suan Vatthana Tham, The National Ethnic Culture Park is located 20 km downriver from Vientiane, Follow Shady Paths past model Lao Homes Sculpture of Lao literary heroes and small zoo. Relax at riverside, bars and restaurant and enjoy the view of khua Mittaphab, The Friendship Bridge. Open daily from 08:00-18:00.

Vientiane doesn't look like a capital, but more like a provincial town. Streets are only partly paved, so in dry season it can get very dusty, after rain it can become pretty muddy.

Arriving at the airport A tuk tuk from the airport into town costs 20 Baht.

Accommodation In general, hotels in Vientiane are more expensive then in the rest of the country. It is difficult to find a budget place under 6 US$ pp. We stayed first in the Vannasinh guesthouse at 51 Phnom Penh road. It's a very nice colonial hotel run by a friendly family who speaks English and French. A double room (with high ceiling) + fan + bathroom costs 5 US* pp. They also give good general info. Our second hotel was the Siry guesthouse near the national football stadium. It's an old, little bit run down guesthouse. we had no contact with the owners, but the room was clean and had AC and bathroom for 5 US$ pp. The cheapest option is a dorm bed in a nameless guesthouse on Thanon Sethathira, next to the Planet cybercafe. It costs 2 US$ for a bed.

Restaurants You'll find a lot of different restaurants in all price ranges. In general the food is pretty good.

Breakfast For a cheap breakfast, you can buy a French baguette at the market. Here, you can also find bananas or other fruits, or cheese etc..., and you can have yourself a cheap meal. A bread is 1000 Kipp, a banana the same and cheese 12.000 Kipp. Phiniphone minimarket is good for selfcatering (over Hotel Metropole on Thanon Samsenthai).

There are 2 very good bakeries where you can buy breakfast: Healthy & fresh (Thanaon Setthathirat) Scandinavian bakery (Fountain circle) They are a bit more expensive, but they offer anything from yogurt to donuts and muffins. Expect to pay around 20.000 for breakfast.

Near the market you can find a lot of food stalls selling French pat baguettes, noodle soups and Lao style coffee. Most of the hotels and guesthouses also serve breakfast (eggs, toast & coffee). Expect to pay around 10.000 to 15.000 Kipp pp. A good and cheap option is also steamed rice in cocosmilk in Bombai. It's very good and sweet and costs 1000 kipp.

Lunch / Dinner You have different options: Lao style food, Thai food, Vietnamese food, Thai food, Vegetarian food, Western food etc.... We went to: PVO food: Vietnamese food. It's a garage style restaurant on Thanon Samsenthai. It's good, basic and cheap. You pay around 10.000 Kipp + 6000 Kipp for a beer. Khop Chai Deu (Near Fountain Circle): a Lao style BBQ. It's a very good restaurant with all kinds of meat and rice. You pay around 20.000 to 25.000 Kipp pp. On the fountain circle there are some French-Italian restaurants where you can find pizza and pasta's. They are more expensive around 40.000 Kipp pp. Vegetarian food: The Taj = an Indian veggie food restaurant costing around 25.000 kipp pp.

Changing money There are different banks or official money changers, you can find some in Talaat Sao. Changing money on the black market is best in your hotel or guesthouse. In the open air market around Talaat Sao, yo  can also find moneychangers, but take care.

What to do Walking tour In a lot of guidebooks, they advise a walking tour in Vientiane. you pass some of the city's most historic attractions and pagodas. You'll see French colonial architecture and Buddhist temples. Some of the sights are: presidential palace, Wat Si Sahet etc... You start at the Lane Xang Hotel, walk down the promenade, return through Thanon Setthathirat and end near Wat In Paeng.

Pha That Luang This si one of the most important national monuments in Laos. It's a symbol of Buddhist religion and Lao sovereignty. It's on the NE part of town, entrance is 500 Kipp, camera an extra 500 Kipp.

Patuxai This is a large monument which looks like the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. If you are stuck in Vientiane, it's worth a visit; You can have a view of Vientiane from the rooftop.

Soccer game We went to see a soccer game in the national stadium. It's quite an experience with lots of singing and dancing. Entrance is free.

Talaat Sao Morning Market: inside you can find all kinds of different shops. It's well known for jewelry (silver), clothes etc... This is also a good place to change money officially. Outside there's a food market with cheap road restaurants. Here you can change your money on the black market, but take care while changing.

Xieng Khuan (Buddha Park) This is a very nice park. Here you can find a couple of hundred Buddha images in all kinds off different shapes. It's a mixture between Hindu and Buddhist philosophy and mythology. Don't forget to go into the large pumpkin shaped monument. Price is 1000 Kipp, camera 500 Kipp. You can find a bus to Xieng Khuan near the bus terminal behind Talaat Sao, but these buses fill up quickly (and in Laos full is really full !!!), so you can rent a Tuk Tuk. We payed a hefty 15.000 Kipp for the return trip. The trip takes about 30 minutes.

Getting away To the East/South (Paksan, Tha Khaek, Savannakhet, Pakse) By plane There are flights to Savannakhet everyday at 7.30 am. There are also flights to Pakse, see the transportation chapter for details.

By bus You can find buses to the South on the busstation behind Talaat Sao. The buses going to Savannakhet and Pakse are also stopping in Phoksan and Khaek. The bustrip to Savannakhet is OK, but from there on to Pakse it gets pretty dusty and bad, but construction is going on for the moment (10/99). Prices to Savannakhet are 20.000 Kipp and the trip takes 7 hours. Check out whether you have to purchase the tickets in advance.There's also a private buscompany to the South. You can find them near Talaat Laeng (evening market).

To the North By plane There are frequent flights to Luang Prabang and Xieng Khuang, and 2 flights a week to Udomxai (Muang Xai). For further details, have a look at the "transportation" chapter.

By boat Since the improvements on road 13, there are no longer boats between Vientiane and Luang Prabang. However, there are still cargo ships doing this trip, it takes 5 days. Prices are negotiable.

By bus to Vang Vieng/Luang Prabang We took the bus to Vang Vieng in the busstation behind Talaat Sao. We payed 5000 Kipp pp for the 2 hour trip. The road is very good. We payed for the ticket on the bus itself. You can also take the bus to LP and then get out on road 13 near Vang Vieng. To Luang Prabang it takes about 10 hours. The price is around 30.000. The first part of the journey is very good (same as Vang Vieng), then you have to pass some mountains. It also depends a bit on what kind of bus you have. Most of the buses to LP leave from the evening market (Thalaat Laeng).

ARCH MONUMENT "PRATUXAI" in the center of Vientiane, this Victory Gate, also known as Anousavali was constructed in 1958, its architecture was inspired from the L'Arc de Triomphe monument in Paris and incorporates the typical Lao motifs including Kinnari, the Mythical bird-woman.

Energetic visitors can climb to the top of the monument and enjoy a Panoramic view of the city with refreshments and tourist stuff. Called vertical runnway because it used (U.S.) cement meant for airport.

Until 1975, both Loang phabang and VTE were considered capitals of Laos. Louang phrabang was called the royal capital because it was the site of the king's palace. In 1975, Communists took control of Laos and abolished the Laotian monarchy. Vientiane then became the country's only capital. (pop. 44,244)

The most important national monument in Laos is Pha That Luang (the Great Sacred Stupa), which is a symbol of both Buddhism and Lao sovereignty. Other sights of interest include Wat Pha Kaew, a former royal temple, which is now a museum; Wat Si Saket, the oldest temple in VTE; and the Morning Market, a sprawling collection of stalls open 6-6pm. Wat Xieng Khuan is a collection of compelling Buddhist and Hindu sculptures located in a meadow, 24km south of VTE.

VTE has about 10 top htls and as many overpriced GHs, but lower-priced rooms have become avail in the last few years. Most of the lodging is in central VTE. You can eat at cafes, street stalls, beer halls or restaurants, offering everything from rice noodles to filet mignon. For good Lao meals, try the Dong Palan Night Market on the east bank of the Nong Chan ponds.

Vientiane is not the illicit entertainment palace it was in the early 1970s: brothels are now prohibited, the marijuana stands have gone from the markets and beer has replaced opium as the nightly drug of choice. Entertain-ment ranges from live music and discos-usually electri-fied Lao folk music or Western pop - to Thai, Chinese, Indian and even Bulgarian films. Tribal crafts, fabrics, jewellery and furniture are all good buys in VTE.

Maybe spelled VIANGCHAN, largest city and capital of Laos, situated on a plain just NE of the Mekong River. The city's central river port location in a country relying heavily on its rivers for transportation and its surrounding hinterland of intensive rice cultivation have made Vientiane the major economic centre of Laos. The city has a tropical monsoon climate, every month having an average daytime temperature above 80 F (27 C) and more than 80% of Vientiane's annual precipitation on the average falling in the five months May-Sep. The town was founded during the late 13th cen, and in the mid-16th cen the capital of the Lao kingdom (known as Lan Xang) was moved to Vientiane from its previous location at Luang Prabang. In 1778 Vientiane came under Siamese control; in 1828 it was sacked and destroyed when the subject Laotian king revolted against Siamese hegemony. From 1899 to 1953, with the exception of the Japanese occupation (1945), Vientiane was in succession the seat of the French governor and the French administrative capital.

Vientiane still has some of its older wooden structures, despite its govt offices, foreign embassies, and schools. Its modern industries include brewing, lumber processing, and the manufacture of brick, tile, textiles, cigarettes, matches, detergents, plastic bags, rubber sandals, and iron and steel. The Lao farmers of the surrounding area tend rice, corn (maize), and livestock in some of the best alluvial lowlands of Laos. Before 1975 the city was the principal stock shipping and slaughtering centre of the country. Since the shift in the country's import trade from Vietnam to Thailand, Vientiane has replaced Pakxe to the SE as Laos's principal port of entry.

The Sisavangvong Univ (founded 1958) in Vientiane has faculties of agriculture, art, education, forestry and irrigation, and medicine. Affiliated bodies include Fa-Ngum College, Lyce Vientiane, Polytechnic, and Pali and Sanskrit institutes. Ho Phakeo, the national museum, is located in the city, as are the Dongsaphangmeuk Library and the National Library.

At Vientiane the Mekong River is navigable only by small craft; passage to the right bank and the Thai railhead of Nong Khai was solely by ferry until 1994, when a hwy bridge was opened. Vientiane has an intl airport, and hwys link the city with Luang phrabang and Savannakhet in Laos and with Saigon, Vietnam. The Nam Ngum Dam north of Vientiane provides enough hydroelectric power for the surrounding areas and for export to Thailand as well. Vientiane's outstanding building is the That Luang, a stupa, dating from about 1566 and restored by Lao civil servants under Prince Phetsarath during the French colonial period.

The City Of Vientiane Capital of Lao PDR Vientiane, capital city of Lao PDR with a population of 464000 and an area of 180 square kilometers, is located on the bank of the Mekong River. Vientiane is the center of culture, commerce and administration in Laos. Vientiane's major attractions are its serene Buddhist monasteries and significant monuments that dominate the scene on the streets of central Vientiane.

That Luang as the National Symbol is featured on the National Emblem of Laos. It was constructed in 1566 by King Say Setthathirath in a typical Lao style and is one of the best known That or stupas in Laos.

Patousai, or Arch of Triump, was formely known only as Anousavary (monument). Constructed in 1958 on Lan Xang Avenue, the architecture is inspired from the Arc de triompje of Paris with Typical Lao motifs.

Vat Phra Keo was constructed in 1565 by King Xayasethathirath when he moved the capital of Lan Xang to Vientiane. It housed the Emerald Buddha, now in Bangkok.

Vat Sisaket is the only temple in Vientiane that has survived the destruction of the city by the Siamese in 1828. It is the oldest monastery standing intact in its original form, and certainly one of the most interesting in the whole country. Inside the main hall, and along the walls of the courtyard surrounding it, are hundreds of little niches and shelves containing a total of 6840 Buddha umages.

Vientiane That Luang temple, Vientiane, Laos also spelled VIANGCHAN, largest city and capital of Laos, situated on a plain just northeast of the Mekong River. The city's central river port location in a country relying heavily on its rivers for transportation and its surrounding hinterland of intensive rice cultivation have made Vientiane the major economic centre of Laos. The city has a tropical monsoon climate, every month having an average daytime temperature above 80 F (27 C) and more than 80 percent of Vientiane's annual precipitation on the average falling in the five months May-September.

The town was founded during the late 13th century, and in the mid-16th century the capital of the Lao kingdom (a state known as Lan Xang) was moved to Vientiane from its previous traditional location at Luang Prabang (now Louangphrabang). In 1778 Vientiane came under Siamese control; in 1828 it was sacked and destroyed when the subject Laotian king revolted against Siamese hegemony. From 1899 to 1953, with the exception of the Japanese occupation (1945), Vientiane was in succession the seat of the French governor and the French administrative capital.

Vientiane still has some of its older wooden structures, despite its government offices, foreign embassies, and schools. Its modern industries include brewing, lumber processing, and the manufacture of brick, tile, textiles, cigarettes, matches, detergents, plastic bags, rubber sandals, and iron and steel. The Lao farmers of the surrounding area tend rice, corn (maize), and livestock in some of the best alluvial lowlands of Laos. Before 1975 the city was the principal stock shipping and slaughtering centre of the country. Since the shift in the country's import trade from Vietnam to Thailand, Vientiane has replaced Pakx to the southeast as Laos's principal port of entry.

The Sisavangvong University (founded 1958) in Vientiane has faculties of agriculture, art, education, forestry and irrigation, and medicine. Affiliated bodies include Fa-Ngum College, Lyce Vientiane, Polytechnic, and Pali and Sanskrit institutes. Ho Phakeo, the national museum, is located in the city, as are the Dongsaphangmeuk Library and the National Library.

At Vientiane the Mekong River is navigable only by small craft; passage to the right bank and the Thai railhead of Nong Khai was solely by ferry until 1994, when a highway bridge was opened. Vientiane has an international airport, and highways link the city with Louangphrabang and Savannakhet in Laos and with Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam. The Nam Ngum Dam north of Vientiane provides enough hydroelectric power for the surrounding areas and for export to Thailand as well. Vientiane's outstanding building is the That Luang, a stupa (temple), dating from about 1566 and restored by Lao civil servants under Prince Phetsarath during the French colonial period.

The town runs sort of N and S along the Mekong River on the west. All the budget stuff is on the two roads parallel to the river. The ferry pier is at the center. The NORTHERN bus term is south of town. VTE is south.

Thai to build a 1400 km RR linking China to Nong Khai, if all goes well.

Rd, Rte Coloniale 13 built by the French in the south along the Mekong is the best. It has recently been repaved from Vientiane/Luang Prabang. Another road will soon connect to China before the RR.

Major air hub is VTE from which all flts begin/end. All fares quoted and paid for in US$. No ccd except thru Tvl agt. As of 1/95 Lao Aviation is 60% owned by China Yunnan Airlines using chines copies of Russan a/c. It has a fleet of 10 a/c. Most flts are visual. Fly on a good day.

Med Fac is poor at the prov hosp on the west side of Th Kitsalat. A Chinese funded clinic opp is not adequate. For anything serious, go to CNX.

Time: Seven hrs ahead of GMT/UTC. Overstaying visa costs $5+ a day.

The capital city and seat of government sits on a bend in the Mekong River amidst fertile alluvial plains. Despite its chequered past, Vientiane (pronounced 'Wieng Chan' by the locals) is a laid-back city with a number of interesting wats and lively markets. The most important national monument in Laos is Pha That Luang (the Great Sacred Stupa), which is a symbol of both Buddhism and Lao sovereignty. Other sights of interest include Wat Pha Kaew, a former royal temple, which is now a museum; Wat Si Saket, the oldest temple in Vientiane; and the Morning Market, a sprawling collection of stalls which operate from 6 am to 6 pm.

Wat Xieng Khuan is a collection of compelling Buddhist and Hindu sculptures located in a meadow, 24km south of Vientiane.

Vientiane has around 10 top-end hotels and as many guesthouses, many of them moderately expensive, but plenty lower-priced rooms have become available in the last few years. Most of the accommodation is in central Vientiane. You can eat at cafes, street stalls, beer halls or restaurants, offering everything from rice noodles to filet mignon. For good Lao meals, try the Dong Palan Night Market on the east bank of the Nong Chan ponds.

Vientiane is not the illicit entertainment palace it was in the early 1970s: brothels are now prohibited, the marijuana stands have disappeared from the markets and beer has replaced opium as the nightly drug of choice. Entertainment ranges from live music and discos - usually electrified Lao folk music or Western pop - to Thai, Chinese, Indian and even Bulgarian films. Tribal crafts, fabrics, jewellery and furniture are all good buys in Vientiane.

From Hanoi to Phongsali via Dien Bien Phu. DaNang or Hue via LaoBao but 14-18 hrs over unpaved roads to VTE.

From Thailand: Nhon Khai and 4 others. Air from VTE to KMG, CNX, RGN, SGN, BKK, PHN. AmEmb:212-581


US warns of further bombings. Tourist areas may be targets for attacks. US authorities warned travellers yesterday they have "credible information" there may be more bombings in Vientiane and cities in southern Laos.

The State Department warning, circulated in Thailand, said the bombings could target tourist areas and warned travellers to be especially careful in public places such as restaurants, bus stations and the airport.

"There is credible information that individuals may be planning to bomb Lao government and public facilities in or near the cities of Vientiane, Pakse, Saravan, Savannakhet, and Muang Khammouan," it said. A number of bombs had exploded since March, in the capital and throughout the south.

"Laos reports have not always provided full information about these reported incidents," the bulletin said.

The Americans gave no clue about how they received their "credible information", and would not comment what prompted the warning.

Laos has been almost silent about the blasts, refusing to acknowledge several and admitting only those witnessed by foreigners.

Last week 1/2001, 11 Thais were wounded in a blast at the Friendship Bridge immigration office. Officials claimed that explosion was the result of a conflict between smugglers and border guards. Other blasts in Vientiane are known to have occurred at the bus station, three restaurants and at least two markets. One large blast injured at least 10 people in a Pakse hotel.

The warning said there was no evidence the bombings were targetting Americans, and stopped short of advising travellers to stay away.

But the warning repeated earlier advice to stay away from Xieng Khouang province and its Plain of Jars, north of Vientiane.

Even Laos has restricted travel to Xieng Khouang on several recent occasions. It is the centre of a Hmong-backed rebellion against the communist government, a battle believed to be separate from the mysterious series of bombs.



\4 LUANG PRABANG

The World Heritage City Luang Prabang Province is one of the most beautiful and attractive areas of Laos where there are many high river valleys along the Mekong River and its major attributes. In the ancient time, Luangprabang was the capital of the Kingdom of Lane Xang, literally means the Kingdom of A Million Elephants, so it became the center of culture and religion of Laotian people. In 1996, Luangprabang had been voted as the WORLD HERITAGE site.

Every year, Luang Prabang attracts thousands of tourists, both local as well as foreigners, especially during its yearly celebration called Pimai Lao (or Laos New Year) in mid April. It is celebrated with emphasis on its own splendid features, unseen in any other regions in Laos. Moreover, this ancient is not so large, and the visitors can tour around the city on foot. The people are hospitalized, the atmosphere is typical, and the cultures are unspoiled.

NATIONAL MUSEUM National Museum is the former Royal Palace, which was constructed in 1904. The former Royal Palace displays a lovely collection of personal artifacts of the Royal Family, photos, musical equipment and gifts received from foreigners.

WAT MAI Wat Mai (1796) was built in a typical style of Lanexang Kingdom and was purely in Laos architectural design. During Pimai Lao, the Prabang (a Buddha statue) is put on display. Traditionally, the Laotian people pour water with perfume and flowers over the Prabang to symbolize the purification of soul

WAT XIENG THONG Wat Xieng Thong is the masterpiece of Buddhist architecture in 16th century with golden facades and colorful murals. This temple was used to organize the highest Royal Ceremony and houses the funeral vehicle of the former king.

Tham Ting (Pak Ou Holy Caves): It is one of the most attractive sites in Luang Prabang. Tham Ting mostly known as Pak Ou Cave is an overhanging cave on the cliff that could be seen from the boat on the Mekong River. The cave is like a sanctuary which houses countless number of Buddha Statues. Since the past, it is the tradition that the Laotian people visiting the cave will leave a Buddha Statue as an aspect of reverence, so the number of the statues increases from year to year. Pak Ou Cave can be accessible only by boat along the Mekong River. You can visit one of the local village to see how the Laotian people produce Laos Liquor (Fermented rice liquor).

In this beautiful town, there were only 3 to 4 guesthouses in 1998; In 2000, there are 23 guesthouses, and the number is still rising. It's main attraction is its beautiful setting next to the Nam Song river and the surrounding Karst mountains. There are also a lot of tunnels and caves.

Accommodation Once you arrive in the center of town, just walk east and you'll pass along a lot of budget places. Kamphone guesthouse: a nice place with a patio in front where you can have coffee or tea the whole day. we payed 10.000 Kipp pp for a double + fan + bathroom. It's clean and friendly. You can find it on the S part of town where it's more quiet. If you want a more romantic place, they were building a guesthouse near the river just before the ferry crossing.

Restaurant A lot of guesthouses serve breakfast: eggs, toast and jam. For self catering, you can find fresh products on the market in the center of town. You can find a lot of Chinese garage style restaurants with cheap noodles and rice-curry dishes (example Kampangh restaurant). They are good and cheap, expect to pay around 10.000 Kipp pp including beer. On the main road, there's a restaurant which is very hip now. You can't miss it. they play jazz music all night and food is great.

What to do This can be the place to relax. Enjoy the beautiful atmosphere, read your book, talk to the locals, relax... You can make beautiful walks in the area. Just take the ferry to the other side of the river (2000 Kipp pp), and you can explore nature and caves. There are a couple close by: Tham Pha Puak, Cave Lucy, Tham Phra Jao. To the caves further away like Nathong and Nasom, you can walk (very hot, take water) and return by tractor (2000 Kipp pp). You can also rent bikes in town and take them with you on the ferry. You can ask local children to guide you around in the caves (1000 Kipp). Another popular activity is cruising down the river on a truck tire for a couple of thousand Kipp. You can hire guides for a more expensive cave tour. Prices are around 30.000 Kipp for half a day. There's an internet connection near the market.

Getting out You can find buses to Vietnam in front of the market. Buses to Luang Prabang leave from the Nang Bot restaurant in the morning, and takes around 6 to 7 hours. Price is 25.000 Kipp pp. Come early because buses fill up quickly. The trip is on a good road, but you'll pass some mountains, so take your jacket if you're on an open bus.

Changing money There's a bank on the main road, right across the school. It's in an old building. Changing money on the black market is best done in your hotel or guesthouse. On the open air market, you can also find people changing money in the back of their stores.

Introduction This beautiful city has recently become part of the UNESCO World heritage. It's famous for its beautiful Buddhist temples, French architecture, ethnic population (Hmong-Mien-Thai) and river-mountain surroundings. Most people stay here longer then planned. LP has the right atmosphere.

Accommodation In LP you can find hotels or guesthouses in all different price ranges. Budget places charge between 10.000 Kipp pp to 80.000 Kipp pp in a double. We stayed at following places: Heritage guesthouse on Sisavang Vathana Rd. (856-71/25/2537). It's a very nice place with everything in colonial wooden style. For a double + bathroom + fan you'll pay 20.000 Kipp pp. Not so friendly. Chaling guesthouse on Thanon Khaem Khmong Rd. It's right beside the Mekong river, not far from the ferry. It's a fantastic and beautiful place, very clean, everything in wood. A room with fan and terrace costs 14.000 Kipp pp. Sysomphone guesthouse has a friendly owner who will take you there on his motorbike. A clean basic room near the Nam Khan river goes for 4000 Kipp pp, this is one of the cheapest places in town. The family is so friendly. The address is Ban Visoun 22/4, not far from Wat Wisunalat.

Other places recommended by other travellers are: Bounthan guesthouse at Ban Pholpheng 125. It has a nice garden, a clean double costs 10000 Kipp pp. Viradesa guesthouse is on Thanon Khaem Khong, also near the Mekong river. They also have a riverboat restaurant near the hotel.

Some new hotels are on the Thanon Phu Wao.

Restaurants Luang Prabang has an excellent choice in food and restaurants. For breakfast you can find 2 bakeries on Thanon Xieng Thong Rd. in the temple district: Healthy & fresh and the Scandinavian bakery. A good choice for breakfast or dinner is restaurant Xien Nuang restaurant on Thanon Xiengthong. Prices around 20.000 Kipp pp. A great place. One of the best places for dinner is the German owned Indochine restaurant, at the junction of Thanon Bunkhong and Thanon Photisalat.They serve Lao, Thai, Vietnamese and western food. Prices are OK, around 20.000 Kipp pp. For self catering you can find a fresh market on Thanon Kitsalat, near the Mekong River. On the other side of this road you can find a closed market (Talaat Dala).

Changing money There is an official bank on Thanon Phothisalat. To change at the black market, just walk around the Talaat Dala, and the exchangers will find you. You can also try at your hotel or guesthouse.

What to do Walking tour There are so many different Buddhist temples, so it's not possible to list them all. Just start your walking tour in the temple district on Thanon Xieng Thong and return on the other side of the Mekong river. You'll pass all sorts of temples and colonial buildings. At some temples, there's a 4000 Kipp entrance fee.

Internet There's a Plannet cafe near the "Healthy & fresh" bakery on Thanon Phothisalat, price is 10.000 Kipp for 10 minutes.

Talaat Dala This is a closed market where you can find cheap restaurants, gold and silver, clothing.... You can also change money here.

Ethnic market At the junction of Thanon Photisalat and Thanon Kitsalat (opposite the Phousi Hotel), some ethnic people (Hmong men) sell their handicrafts. It's pretty touristic with the expensive hotel in front of the market. At this market, you can also find trucks or tuk tuks to Kuang Si falls.

Pak Ou Caves A 3 hour boattrip from Luang Prabang on the Mekong river. The caves are stuffed with Buddha images of all styles and sizes. Prices around 40.000 Kipp pp.

Ban Phanom village and Mouhot's tomb A good day trip on a bicycle is a ride to Ban Phanom village. You can rent a bike in the Phoun Sab guesthouse (10.000 Kipp pp). You can bike to the airport and at the crossing in front of the airport, you turn right. It's about 4 km up. In the village you can buy cotton and silk weaving. After the village, on the way to the river, you can find the tomb of Henri Mouhot, who discovered Angkor Wat (+ 1861).

Getting away To the South By plane: flights to Vientiane daily for about 60 US$. By bus: buses to Vang Vieng twice a day buses to Vientiane 3 times a day for about 30.000 Kipp pp, 10 to 12 hours trip.


Luang Prabang Introduction This is a nice village to stop your journey along on the way to the NW region. The surrounding forest is good for hiking. From LP to Pakmon (crossroad) it's a relatively good road, but then you come on road nr; 1 which is in some places very bad.We were there at late monsoon, and some places where simply washed away. Nong Khiaw is a good night stop for an alternative route to Phonsavan (Plane of Jars).

Accommodation Don't expect much of hotels or guesthouses or any luxury. At the moment there are 5 guesthouses (10/99). Philasouk guesthouse: right near the Songthaews stop, in front of the bridge. It's a 2-storey wooden building with a restaurant downstairs. Simple but clean rooms with mosquito nets + bunk beds cost 5000 Kipp pp, bathroom is downstairs. This is the only place where they sell cold beer. The other 4 are also basic and have their mattresses on the floor. To get there, just walk down the main road, and you'll pass 3 others: Samphay 4000 Kipp pp Samnjot 2000 Kipp pp No name 3000 Kipp pp

The 4th one is just 10 minutes further along the main road near the school. It has no name and costs 5000 Kipp pp.

Restaurant There's only 1 restaurant. It's in the Philasouk guesthouse.They have a menu, but not everything on it is available. During our stay, you could only get noodle soup, sticky rice with egg and vegetables for 10.000 Kipp. They also have cold beer. On the main road there are some foodstalls selling fruit and noodles.

Money exchange the Philasouk sometimes changes money, but there rate is bad, so make sure you have enough Kipp with you.

What to do It's a quiet off-road Hmong village with nice nature surroundings. So it's good to relax, or for smaller trekkings of 1 day to nearby Hmong villages. A nice 1 day hike is a trip to Tham Pha Tok, a limestone cave where villagers lived during the Indochina wars, and to the nearby waterfall. Just walk out of the village, crossing the bridge. After about 5 to 7 km, you'll see on your right side the cave in the mountain. Leave the road, cross the river (watch out for leaches) and cross the rice field. You'll find a bamboo ladder leading into the caves (not good for people who are afraid of heights). DON'T FORGET YOUR TORCH. To the waterfall, just continue the road for 4 km. Don't expect more then a good swim though. If you need a guide for longer trekkings, ask for one at the Samnjot guesthouse.

Getting out By boat It's possible to charter a boat to LP for around 50.000 Kipp pp. The price will of course vary depending on how many passengers there are. You can also charter a boat to Phongsali for about 35.000 Kipp pp, also depending on the number of passengers. We saw some people trying to find a boat to Vietnam, and they found one (don't know at which price). However, be aware that your Vietnam visa has to state the exact point of entry.

by the banks of the Mekong, some 500 kilometres upriver from Vientiane and 300 metres above sea level, is Laos' oldest town still in existence. For the most part of her history the town was the seat of kings. In 1563 King Setthathirat moved his government to Vientiane; but by then, Luang Prabang had already been capital for some 800 years.  True, the kingdoms ruled from Luang Prabang had not been large for the first 600 years of her history. Only Prince Fa Ngoum made Luang Prabang the capital of a kingdom of significant size.

The small town (about 20,000 inhabitants today) is beautifully located at the foot of a high, rocky mountain - Mount Phousi - by the banks of the Mekong river, and the town has a romantic atmosphere even though most buildings are not very old (despite the town's history of many centuries).

The reason: surrounded by almost infinite forests the town's inhabitants always used as building material what they had, in abundance, at their disposal: wood.  In the course of its long history the town had often been conquered and burnt down. The last time this happened in the 80's of the 19th century at the hands of the Chinese. The town had also been a frequent target of hostile visits by Thais and Vietnamese. 

After invasions, many destroyed structures were rebuilt, some of them again and again, roughly the same as they have existed before an invasion. Though physically no longer present, architecture dating back many centuries shapes the town and contributes to Luang Prabang's unquestioned charm. To this, the numerous Wats in and around the town provide a spiritual component

The ancient capital city of the Lan Xang Kingdom. According to the Luang Prabang legend, the first name of Luang Parabang was Muang Swa, named after King Khun Xua around the eighth century, later known as Xieng Dong and Xieng Thong. During the reign of King Fa Ngum between 1354 and 1372 A.D., Xieng Dong, and Xieng Thong cities were renamed Luang Prabang in the name of the gold image of Buddha, the Phrabang.

Luang Prabang was the capital of the Lane xang kingdom from 1354 A.D. The capital was then transfered to Vien-tiane city in 1560 A.D. Luang Prabang is rich in cultural heritage, known as the seat of Lao culture, with monas-teries, monuments traditional costumes and surrounded by many types of nature's beauty. Luang Prabang prov has a total pop of 365000.

The National Museum, formerly the Royal Palace. Erected as a palace between 1904 and 1909 A.D., during the reign of King Sisavangvong, now turned into a National Museum, it houses the Royal throne of Lan Xang kingdom in its original splendour, and many other regalia and religious treasures. It is located on the bank of the Mekong River, facing Mount Phusi.

Situated on the bank of the Mekong River, on the wedge of land formed where the Mekong and the Nam Khan rivers meet, Vat Xiengthong was constructed in 1559/1560 A.D. by king Say Setthathirath. Vat Xiengthong is the most beautiful among all monasteris of Luang Prabang and represents the typical Lao art style. Many old and beautiful religious artifacts of the period between the sixteenth and the twentieth centuries, and some ancient masterpieces of Lao art, for a valuable collection of cultural heritage.

The spectacular Kouangsy Waterfall is located in an ideal area deep in the forest, away from human habitation. It is perfect for rest and relaxation. On the way to the falls, quaint villages with their traditional hydro-rice mills can be also visited.

The cool limestone caves are located on the steep rock cliff rising vertically from the waters of the Mekong River, at the confluence of the Mekong and nam Ou rivers. The craggy mountains scenery is breathtaking with over hanging cliffs above the swift flowing river. The best attractions here are the two caves full of Buddha images of varying styles, ages and sizes. The lower cave called Tham Ting, or Tham Leusi contains a hermit of Leusi statue. The other noteworthy cave is called Tham Theung (upper cave), or Tham Prakachay. The caves can be reached by a 2 hours boat trip, upstream from Luang Prabang.

Vat Mai, constructed in 1821 A.D., during the reign of king Manthatourath, was once the residence of Phra Sangkharaj (the Patriach of the Buddhist clergy). The five-tiered roof of the wooden Sim is the traditional Luang Prabang style.

Vat Visoun was built between 1500/1520 during the reign of King Visounarat. The phrabang, the fine gold Buddha image, the religious symbol of the Kingdom, was enshrined here from 1504 to 1715 A.D., and from 1866 to 1874 A.D. In 1942, it was turned into a Museum of Religious Arts, and housed collections of Buddha images and religious artifacts from the fourteenth century. Within its precincts stands the gigantic That Makmo (watermelon stupa), originally known as That Patum or Lotus Stupa, constructed in 1503 A.D.

That Chomsi of Luang Prabang was constructed on top of the Phusi hill in 1804 A.D. during the reign of king Anurut. It is an impressive structure, fully renovated in 1994. It is a meaningful symbol as it stand in the center of the twon. At mid-slope, and at the foot of the hill, are several religious sites including caves, Buddha foot-prints, and templates. Drumming on top of Phusi was once a tradition of the Luang Prabang people. The sound of the drum, every three hours could be heard for miles around.

Built by King Fa in 1370 at Mekong/NamKhan Rivers. Big town samee samee with Lane Xang is UNESCO world heritage site, Lotta wats. Boats south to VTE takes 3-4 days. Some boats overnight at Pak Lai. You pay for the GH.

Kuang Si waterfall, 35 km. Best by rented motorbike.

Airport "terminal" is a small bldg with open air luggage claim, a small open air cafe, and two open pit toilets. On the way, is a small village that produces hand woven materials at unbelievably low prices, with most items running $2-$6. The marketplace was one large hut with vendors distributed about the fringe, some weavers as young as eight or nine years old. In addition to weaving, they also made Hmong style needlepoint.

The Hmong are the indigenous hill tribes, not often seen in the local villages. We chanced to run across a handful later in the main mkt in the city.

Our hotel in Luang Prabang was the Mitti Phab and was a very nice place by comparison to most other places we stayed. Our room had a nice view over the town and valley. Most of our meals were taken in the hotel and were simple but good.

As we sat there reading up on the next day's plans, something began hitting the window screen. It startled us and we looked out the window to see who would be tapping on our screen. The largest black bee I've ever seen was flying against the screen trying to get in. It measured a good three inches from wingtip to wingtip. We were very thankful for screens that night. The bee landed on the screen and I took the opportunity to flick him across the patio. He decided to go bother someone else after that.

The next morning, we got up and looked out from our patio over valley. A mix of mist and wood smoke laid low over the palm trees and jungle lining the valley and the air was fresh from the night's rain. I have traveled a fair amount and experienced a lot of outdoors environments, but this moment was unlike any other.

Despite the exotic places I'd been in the last few days, I realized that this was a truly different place and I understood what others had tried to explain to me about the mystique of exotic travel. We met the other couple for breakfast and stopped to pick up two Australian women from another hotel before heading down to the river. We arrived at a local temple and toured the grounds.

Afterwards, we headed down to the riverside to board our boat for the trip up the Mekong River to the Pak Ou Caves. Along the way, we passed a Lao gunboat which had been sunk along the river's edge. After about an hour's trip, we landed at the base of the cliff below the cave. Along the way, we observed several village women gold panning on some sand banks in the river. Climbing the stairs to the caves, we passed a man with a pet monkey.

As Gloria passed by, the monkey leapt from its perch and grabbed her arm, biting her repeatedly. It startled her and she tried to shake it off. The man immediately grabbed the monkey and pried it off of her. Fortunately, her long sleeves protected her arm from serious injury.

After a long climb, we arrived at the cave and walked about, seeing thousands of small Buddha statues filling the cave. Bats were very much in evidence in the recesses of the cave. Climbing back down, we stopped at a small plateau to eat our hotel packed lunch, a mix of fruit, chicken and smoked meat. On our return trip, we stopped at a small village we had passed along the way. Xang Hai village produces rice alcohol by fermentation and distillation. It smells terrible, but trades well with other villages for cloth and food.

As we walked around the village, I noticed what appeared to be blood droplets scattered about the ground. Given the large number of chickens in evidence, I guessed someone must have been preparing dinner. I still kept seeing them, however, and noticed an old woman spitting the blood red material onto the ground. The woman was chewing betel nut, a seed wrapped in a leaf with powdered limestone and chewed for it's narcotic properties.

Many of the old timers have ground their teeth flat over the years. We saw this again in some of the other villages we visited later. Many of the small children were wearing Yamaha tee shirts and we realized that this was a bit of micro marketing of Yamaha boat motors, one of the few bits of technology used by these villagers on their fishing boats.

A wedding had recently taken place and we observed the entire village pitching in to hand saw planks from a log and build a house for the lucky couple. The community structure here is very strong. When large projects of any kind are necessary, such as house building, the entire village cooperates in the project. Palm trees were plentiful around the village and we learned that palm trees were not native to most of these areas.

Since the beginning of commerce on the Mekong River, palms were transported and traded along the river, being planted in villages. When traveling the river, it is easy to spot village locations because of the presence of palm trees. It was interesting to note children who appeared to be about three to five years of age using knives to shave and carve wood, a necessary skill learned early on in life here. A fisherman was repairing a net and slivers of meat had been hung in the open air to dry.

Of course, most of the local fly population seemed drawn to sample the meat as it hung there. We returned to Luang Prabang. We toured a Buddhist monastery where our guide had been a monk. It is the custom for most young men to spend one or two years as a monk while growing up. After visiting the monastery and seeing a sacred Buddha footprint, we watched a beautiful sunset on the river as fishermen folded their fishing nets for the night.

The next morning, we arose early and headed to the museum to view many local artifacts and articles form the period of Royal rulers. After the museum, we parted ways with the Australian women at their hotel. The hotel they were staying in was more in the city than ours and the grounds were filled with exotic birds and monkeys. We returned to our hotel and were later met by our guide and a driver with a four-wheel drive truck for our trek into the surrounding jungle. Our destination was the Khouang Sy waterfalls some 30 kms outside of the city.

Evidence of Vietnam era bombing by the U.S. is still in evidence, with many bridges still showing twisted steel, large holes, and wooden patches and repairs. We passed a couple of small villages along the way and stopped at one. As we got out of the truck, we were immediately surrounded by curious children. The couple who was with us had brought a small bubble wand with them and began blowing bubbles for the amusement of the children.

They were thrilled by this and, eventually, several adults joined us as well. They appeared equally amused and we were followed by this entourage of some thirty or so villagers as we toured the village. Most of these people have not seen many Caucasians and were fascinated with our skin and hair color. This particular village specializes in spinning thread from raw cotton grown by another village. This is then traded to the village which weaves cloth.

The impact of war on this village was evident in their use of war scrap. One child had a whistle made from a rifle cartridge, water buckets had been made from artillery shells, and ammunition boxes were used for storage. Opium pipes and other decorative hand-tooled items in other parts of the country are often made from aluminum salvaged from bomb casings and downed aircraft. Betel nut use was heavily inevidence here. Housing is largely constructed of palm fronds and wood.

Arial Arriving at the waterfalls, we climbed the steep, narrow trail to the first level, then to the higher level. The falls cascade from the highest level into a large pond and then over a cliff to another pond a the lowest level. The water is heavily mineral laden, mostly lime, which gives the water a turquoise color. The heavy mineral content also deposits on the walls of the cliffs, building a solid structure with the appearance of cascading water.

Arial Some of the trails, especially on the upper portion, are quite narrow and slippery. Our guide went for a short swim and then we turned back. This is when disaster struck. I jumped across a small stream and turned to assist Gloria. As she jumped, her foot landed on a mossy rock and she slipped. As she fell, I lost my balance and fell as well. Her leg landed across two rocks and I, of course, landed in the middle.

After we de-tangled ourselves, Gloria tried to stand. Her foot simply twisted to the side and down she went. She had clearly broken something and here we were, 300 feet up a treacherous trail. Since it was obvious that an emergency airlift wasn't forthcoming, I gathered some sticks and a triangular bandage form our first aid kit and fashioned a splint for her leg from the knee to the ankle. Thank God for Boy Scouts. We managed to limp, crawl, and slide down the trail to the truck for the long drive back to Luang Prabang Provincial Hospital.

Gloria is a nurse and I have experience with emergency medicine as well. We were horrified by what we saw.ArialAs we arrived, our guide jumped out and fetched a "doctor" from somewhere. We asked for a wheelchair and they returned with a gurney, still covered with blood and hair from someone else who had recently had the misfortune to have been brought here. We passed on that and limped in. The "emergency room" was a small room with two steel exam tables. Dirty handprints were all over the walls, the idea of soap and water apparently being foreign to the staff here. They decided to cut through the tape I had used to wrap the splint and pulled out a rusty pair of scissors with one blade half broken off. Useless. I finally stepped in and used the small scissors form my Swiss Army knife to cut through. Meanwhile, the family of the other person in the room and several villagers who had been hanging around outside had gathered inside the room for the show, making it quite crowded. It was decided that an x-ray was in order and that some supplies would be needed like gauze pads and elastic wraps. This hospital has no supplies at all on the premises and I accompanied our guide to procure some x-ray film on the black market somewhere down the street. We also visited one of the numerous "pharmacies" to purchase the rest of the supplies. Arriving back, Gloria was transported to the x-ray room by wheelchair. We stood there as two great wooden doors were opened, trailing cobwebs and dust. The equipment inside was reminiscent of a Frankenstein movie, Soviet manufactured and probably forty years old or so. Our eyes went a little wide at the sight of it and Gloria asked whether they had a lead apron for her, being as the x-ray was probably last calibrated when it was installed. One was located and dusted off. The x-ray technician found it amusing that anyone should be concerned about this. Gloria advised me to leave the room, which I did. Our guide and two other curious people stood in a circle around her foot to see what happens when an x-ray is taken. Upon completion, I swear they glowed just a bit in the darkened room. When the x-ray had been fired off, the lights dimmed in the entire hospital. Gloria waited while they developed the film and I walked around a bit, peering into the hospital wards. The wards were large, open rooms shared by dozens of people on cots. Entire families would come to stay with the patients all day, crowding the wards and no doubt spreading diseases faster than they could be treated. Malaria is very common in this country and almost everyone has contracted it at some point. Many people exhibit the yellow coloration associated with malaria. One could almost feel the disease emanating from those rooms. While passing time waiting outside, I happened to meet the surgeon assigned to the hospital. He was a Cuban doctor doing his surgical internship here. Between his limited English and my limited Spanish, we managed to communicate fairly well. I learned his story and he learned of our recent experience. He carried his personal set of surgical instruments with him at all times to prevent theft, being the only surgical instruments in the province. ArialWe asked to see the x-ray when it was developed and it showed about a one quarter inch wide spiral fracture of the tibia bone from the knee to the ankle. This explained why her foot turned when she tried to stand. We were happy to find that it was not broken through. The doctors fashioned a new splint and wrapped it in gauze soaked in rice alcohol, a very smelly arrangement. Plaster, it seems, is unknown in this part of the world. We inquired whether there were any crutches to be had in the area. They dug around through a dusty cabinet and produced three teakwood crutches, two of which even matched. We inquired whether we might purchase them and the doctors thought a bit. They explained that they would be somewhat expensive. Having little choice at that point, we asked how expensive. Their price was the equivalent of $10! We gave them twenty and told them to keep the difference. They were quite happy and so were we. We finally were able to return to our hotel to decide what to do. Our friends came by our room bearing two airline bottles of Kahlua and whiskey and explained that they figured we could use both the pain killing and stress relieving qualities of the booze. We couldn't have agreed more and their simple gesture was very much appreciated. Our guide, much distressed by our situation, disappeared and returned later that evening. His girlfriend had hand sewn some pads for the tops of the crutches! They were a perfect fit and worked beautifully. The crutches had nails in the bottom, I suppose to prevent undue wear and tear on the crutch tip. Gloria discovered with a sudden whoosh and a thud that this was a poor design for use on a tiled floor. I cut up a rubber sandal and fastened it to the tips for some better traction. We also found that the splint the doctors had fashioned was quite uncomfortable and we constructed a new one from plastic water bottles and Ace wraps. We decided that since we had no travel insurance and since our next destination might not remain open to travel, we would try to carry on as long as we could. This was one week into a three week trip. The next morning, we had a short driving tour of the town on our way to the airport and flew back to Vientiane.

Luang Prabang A sleepy town in the green mts of Northern Laos. It was established as the Lao royal capital and is filled with temples -- 32 of which are at least 200 years old. UNESCO designated Luang Prabang a World Heritage Site in 1995.

The temples and stupas of Phousi, the sacred hill, overlook the city and provide a panoramic view of a lush landscape.

Wat May is considered one of the jewels of Luang Prabang. Its facade is a golden bas-relief telling the story of Phravet, one of the last reincarnations of the Buddha.

Wat Xieng Thong, built in 1560, is at the top of a flight of stairs leading down to the Mekong. Its colors are brilliant gold and red and it is filled with intricate carvings and mosaics. It also houses a rare Lao reclining Buddha the huge funeral chariot of the father of the last Lao king.

A boatride about 15 miles up the Mekong will take visitors to the Pak Ou Caves, two sacred caves cut into a cliff that contain thousands of Buddha images, some thought to be more than 300 years old. People pan for gold along the riverbank.

Hilltribes such as the Hmong live in the mountains surrounding Luang Prabang.

Luang Prabang in the center of the north is the jewel of Indochina, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1995. The ancient royal city is surrounded by mountains at the junction of the Mekong and its tributary, the Khan river. In the centre of the city is Mount Phousi with stunning views of the surrounding temples and hills. Luang Prabang is a city where time seems to stand still. As part of the UNESCO plan, new buildings have been limited and development must be in keeping with this magical place.

If youre up at the crack of dawn, you can catch the towns most extraordinary sight. Scores of saffron-robed monks file out of the monasteries and make their way barefoot through the streets, bearing gold-topped wooden alms bowls. Along the route, locals wait to present sticky rice and other food to the monks--thereby earning merit by performing this good deed.

Theravadan Buddhism says that women cannot stand higher than monks, so women kneel on bamboo mats to present food, while local men stand; as a mark of respect, women wear a traditional shawl, while men drape one shoulder with a white scarf. A long line of monks creates a swirl of orange, accentuated by the soft morning light; the scene is framed by russet monastery roofs, tall palm trees, and whitewashed colonial housing. Within an hour, the monks complete their rounds, and melt back into the monasteries-and the streets become quite ordinary again.

Altho this ritual can be seen in numerous parts of SE Asia, it's particularly striking in Luang Prabang because of the density of temples and the concentration of monks. Out of a pop of 15,000 residents, there are over 500 monks in this former royal capital of Laos. The oldest part of the city is where royalty and nobility once resided--patrons of temple building in centuries past.

In Dec 95, the entire town of Luang Prabang was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, ranking it alongside architectural treasures like Angkor Wat or the Taj Mahal.

The UNESCO report identified 33 temples and 111 historic Lao-French bldgs for specific restoration, citing Luang Prabang as the best-preserved traditional town in SE Asia-a kind of outdoor museum. Luang Prabangs natural and cultural beauty are well-preserved because of the town's isolation-altho it flourished as a trading outpost among the peoples of upper Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, south China and Burma, there was little contact with non-Asian countries until the French arrived in the mid-19th cen.

Luang Prabang is jewel-like: tiny and compact. The "setting" is what gives it a jewel-like aura: the town is encircled by peaks and rivers, and camouflaged by palm trees and dense tropical foliage. From a distance, only golden-spired stupas can be seen--flashes of gold among the greenery. The town is sited on a peninsula at the strategic junction of the Mekong and Khan rivers--originally, ramparts to the south and west sealed off the land approaches. At the heart of Luang Prabang is Mount Phousi, a 150m high rocky outcrop with forested slopes, dotted with sacred shrines and stupas.

Because of its diminutive size, Luang Prabang is easily explored on foot, by bicycle, or by boat. "You dont need a key," says the hotel receptionist, dismissing my inquiry about a bicycle lock. "There are no thieves here." And so I ride off- lockless- through the streets, being greeted with a chorus of "sabaidee" (hello) from other cyclists. Life moves at bicycle pace here: theres no particular rush--even the motorcyclists putter along at a gentle speed. A woman cycles past me with her baby in the front basket; another cycles along holding a parasol to ward off the mid-day sun. Traffic is light--the only time the roads get busy is when schools let out for lunch, and students on bicycles throng the streets. Otherwise, the area around markets is brisk, with motorcycle hybrid vehicles delivering or loading goods. And it is true that few locals bother to lock their bicycles--even at the markets.

Down by the Mekong, I stop at a wooden structure perched over a hillside--a restaurant where you can take in Mekong waterlife. The waiter serves some som tam (spicy papaya salad), and then sits down to practice his English. And so the town works its charm: for reasons of war, politics and physical isolation, Luang Prabang has preserved an older, slower, more traditional way of life--old Asia, Asia without the crowds, Asia without the traffic.

The final destination of the days cycling is the monastery of Wat Xieng Thong, a temple I have visited before--but one that merits many visits. Right now the sky is clear and the sun is close to setting--and thats when the temple is bathed in a gorgeous light. Wat Xieng Thong is a feast for the eyes and the soul: the stuff of Oriental fairytales. The grounds provide a tranquil harmony of elements--gardens of bougainvillea, frangipani and hibiscus, shaded by banyan and palm trees.

The main temple is pure Luang Prabang style, with graceful low-sweeping roofs of glazed tiles. The rear of the temple is encrusted with colored glass pieces in a red background, depicting a bodhi tree; inside, gold-stenciled wooden pillars support a ceiling decorated with dharma wheels. In the Wat Xieng Thong compound are several striking chapels--one housing a rare bronze reclining Buddha; another sheltering a 12-meter-high gilded wooden funeral chariot. The exterior of this building features wooden panels of Ramayana figures, sculpted by master artisan Thit Tanh. The setting sun brings the dazzling gold-leaf-overlaid figures to life--they practically glow.

Temples date back to the 16th cen in Luang Prabang-there are more than 30 wats scattered around the town (there used to be double that number). Temples were the center of the Lao universe, and until the French arrived, were the only structures allowed to be constructed of brick. The wats are treasure-troves of mural-painting and sculpture: the best-preserved and most lavish are the temples lying on the peninsula between Wat Xieng Thong and the Royal Palace.

These wats were formerly associated with royalty; the villas and residences of the royal Lao family were also located along this strip. Next to the palace is Wat Mai, inaugurated in the 18th century: the exterior walls of the main temple bear magnificent gold stucco bas-reliefs recounting the legend of Pavet, the last incarnation of the historic Buddha, amid a profusion of village scenes. Wat Pak Khan, known as the Dutch pagoda, features carved doors showing Dutch traders who visited in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Luang Prabangs temples are being painstakingly restored under World Heritage Site plans--with particular attention to artwork damaged by monsoon rains and tropical humidity. A new traditional-style pavilion has been constructed on the Palace grounds to house Pra Bang, the standing Buddha image that gives Luang Prabang its name. The 83-cm-high statue, reckoned to be 90 percent gold, was reputedly made in the first century AD, and is a source of spiritual protection for Laos.

By the early 19th century, Laos was effectively under the control of the Siamese, who later ceded the territory to the French, with the most significant treaties negotiated between 1893 and 1907. The Lao king was reduced to a figurehead: real power was held by the French. The French built little infrastructure in Laos--the place was regarded as the land of the lotus-eaters, where an indolent lifestyle prevailed. It was too mountainous for plantations, there was little in the way of mining, and the Mekong was not suitable for commercial navigation. Some half-hearted attempts were made to cultivate rubber and coffee, but the main export under the French was opium. Only a few hundred French resided in Laos: they mostly left the running of the place to Vietnamese civil servants. The king was allowed to remain in Luang Prabang, and the Lao carried on farming as they had for hundreds of years.

The French finally got into gear--from 1907 to 1925 there was a spate of colonial building in Luang Prabang. The French administration used styles developed in Vietnam, but instead of simply transplanting European architecture, adapted designs better suited to the climate--wooden houses with internal corridors to provide cool air circulation. There are temple-inspired styles, such as a headmasters house--a remarkable blend of Lao-French architecture. Not so inspiring are the French public buildings--the former customs building, post and telegraph office, school, hospital, and gendarmerie. To build these, the French imported Vietnamese laborers who established their own quarter at the south side of the peninsula, constructing two-storey Chinese shophouses to live in.

The most peculiar hybrid structure in Luang Prabang is the former Royal Palace, now a museum. The palace was constructed from 1904 to 1909, and although intended for occupation by Lao King Sisavang Vong, the building was commissioned by the French colonial administration, which explains the mix of French and Lao architecture. The effect was intentional--to cement the relationship. At the front entrance, high up on the front of the building is a crest of Erawan, the three-headed elephant, symbolizing the three kingdoms of Laos. The pillars below bear French fleur-de-lys emblems; you sweep up stairs made of Italian marble; inside are French mirrors and Czech chandeliers alongside traditional Lao lacquered and gilded furniture.

The last room on the Royal Palace tour features oil portraits of the last king, Sisavang Vatthana, and the queen and crown prince, who gaze down from the walls, looking somber and dignified. The monarchy endured until 1975, when it was banished under the incoming Pathet Lao government. The 1970s and 1980s were a period of austerity in Laos; in the 1990s, however, royal style has been revived in Luang Prabang in the interests of tourism, Buddhism has been re-adopted as the national religion, and traditional festivals have been revived.

The biggest and most important festival is Pimai (Lao New Year) which used to feature parading royal elephants, draped in ceremonial blankets: an ear of each elephant was lifted up and a sermon was whispered into it before the elephants took part in the procession. Today there are no longer any royal elephants: Pimai kicks off with the crowning of Miss New Year, who is paraded through the town on a float; the following days see the ceremonial washing of Buddha statues, construction of small sand stupas in wats (as symbolic requests for prosperity in the coming year), processions of monks, folksinging, fairgrounds--four days of fun and festivities.

In terms of preserving tradition, the inscription of Luang Prabang on the World Heritage List in 1995 could not have been more timely. With new roads snaking in from Vientiane and from the Chinese border, and a new airport, tiny Luang Prabang was about to experience rapid expansion and transformation--not entirely positive. Now the towns character has been preserved--and its future assured--with new zoning laws restricting advertising billboards and decreeing that no out-of-character buildings or concrete eyesores can be constructed. That means no plague of photo-finishing shops or fast-food outlets.

Power and tele lines have to be buried. Under the UNESCO plan, there are three zones for preservation: the old quarter, a peripheral building zone, and natural zones along the Mekong River banks. A real conundrum is how to maintain Luang Prabang as a World Heritage Site and yet accommo- date the greater number of tourists that designation will attract. So far, Luang Prabang authorities are handling increased tourism well: the plan is not to build new hotels--rather to modify existing mansions for use as hotels.

The innovator here is the Santi family. In 1992, Lao princess Kampha and her husband Santi Inthavong renovated an old French colonial mansion, turning it into a stylish 11-room hotel called Villa Santi. Lao antiques provide interior decor; on the upper floor is a restaurant serving tasty Lao dishes; at the back is a garden where performances of classical dance are sometimes staged. This style of hotel proved so popular that the Santis built a larger wing in classic Lao style. Down by the Mekong is another renovated French mansion: on the wall is a picture of the original owner, Monsieur Doree, taken in 1904--Doree was a French trader who married a Lao woman and stayed on in Luang Prabang.

In 96, the mansion was opened after beautiful restora-tion in a Canadian-Lao joint-venture, which explains why it is called the Auberge Calao. The Auberge Calao has only five rooms, which is very much part of the plan in Luang Prabangs old quarter: in this zone, the only new hotels that can operate must have fewer than 15 rms. This has lead to the opening family-run GHs such as Vanvisa, a French-style dwelling, and Paphay, a Lao timber house.

Outside the fully-protected zone, larger htls can be constru- cted, subject to design approval. An eye-catching design has been utilized at Mouang Luang Htl, completed in 1996.

The hotel draws its inspiration from Luang Prabang temples, with layered sweeping roofs on the outside, and on the inside, royal-style teak furniture with handwoven silk upholstery, and traditional woodcarved panels on the walls--all made by local artisans. Staff dress in traditional Lao costumes, and the restaurant serves Luang Prabang specialties on its varied menu. Director Amphone Nolintha says she wants guests in this 35-rm htl to experience the richness of the towns art and traditions. Luang Prabangs World Heritage status is doing a lot more than preserving the town: it is helping preserve a way of life by boosting pride in traditional ways and culture.

EXPLORING BY BOAT - Luang Prabang is a riverine town: the first French explorers arrived here by boat. You can still experience that intimate feeling of discovery by taking day or overnight trips from Luang Prabang. A popular day trip is an excursion by covered wooden longboat along the Mekong River to Pak Ou Grottoes. The river runs wide here, cutting a swath through jungle-clad banks and limestone gorges. En route you can stop at small villages--Ban Sang Hae is engaged in the production of moonshine whiskey, made from glutinous rice. Pak Ou Grottoes are about 25 kms upstream from Luang Prabang: the grottoes are sacred caves tucked into limestone cliffs, filled with hundreds of gilded and wooden Buddha statues. The caves were once occupied, creating a unique place for monks and hermits to dwell and worship. The king of Laos used to visit once a year; today, at Lao New Year, hundreds of pilgrims wend their way out from Luang Prabang in a candlelit procession.

Pak Ou means "mouth of the Ou River". After a picnic at the grottoes, you can detour up the Nam Ou tributary--a great ride, as the banks here are much closer than on the Mekong, and the limestone cliffs are more dramatic. Depending on the season and water levels, a wooden craft can venture right up the Nam Ou to Phong Saly Province. Because of poor road infrastructure, a lot of trade proceeds by boat in this direction, so you see cargo boats negotiating sandbars and minor rapids, and many villages en route. An excellent destination or stopping point up the Nam Ou is the village of Muang Ngoy, with an entrancing setting enclosed by lofty karst peaks.

Michael Buckley is the author of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos Handbook (Moon Pubs, USA, 98).